Medieval and Islamic History

The name Akbar in Arabic means "the great" or "the greatest." This name was given to Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1542-1605) and reflected his stature as one of India's greatest rulers. His reign is known for religious tolerance, administrative reforms, and territorial expansion. The other rulers' names have different meanings - Babar means "lion/tiger" and Humayun means "fortunate."

Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658) moved the Mughal capital from Agra to Delhi in 1648, founding the city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). This included building the Red Fort (Lal Qila) and the Jama Masjid. The move reflected Delhi's historical importance as a capital and its strategic central location. The other emperors ruled primarily from Agra or Lahore.

Akbar (r. 1556-1605) pioneered the policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all), which promoted reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus into the Mughal system. This included abolishing the Jizyah tax, permitting Hindu temple construction, engaging in interfaith dialogue, and incorporating Hindus into administration and military. This policy created relative harmony and strengthened the empire.

Akbar's tomb at Sikandra near Agra was commissioned by his son Jahangir and features a distinctive 5-tiered pyramidal structure. It's an important Mughal architectural masterpiece built during Jahangir's reign.

Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler, invaded India in 1739 and took away the Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) of Shah Jahan after his victory in the Battle of Karnal. The throne was adorned with precious jewels including the Kohinoor diamond. Ahmed Shah Abdali and Mahmud Ghazni also invaded India but came earlier, while Changez Khan (Genghis Khan) was a Mongol invader from an earlier period.

Dara Shukoh (also called Dara) was the eldest son of Shah Jahan and distinctly known for his deep religious interest and syncretic philosophy. He sponsored the translation of the Upanishads from Sanskrit to Persian, earning the title 'Sirr-i-Akbar' and promoting Hindu-Muslim religious understanding. His brothers Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb were known for military ambition and orthodox Islamic views rather than scholarly translation of Hindu texts.

Gul-i-Naghma is a renowned poetic work by Raghupati Sahay 'Firaq Gorakhpuri' (1896-1982), one of the most celebrated Urdu poets of the 20th century. He received the Jnanpith Award in 1968 for his contributions to Urdu literature.

Din-i-Illahi (Divine Faith) was initiated by Akbar in 1582, blending elements of Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. It emphasized tolerance and rationalism. It didn't survive Akbar's death. Aurangzeb was orthodox, Shah Jahan focused on architecture.

Qutubuddin Aibak, the founder of the Slave Dynasty in India, was known as 'Lakh Baksh' (giver of lakhs) because of his generosity in giving charitable donations. He was famous for his patronage and distributed large sums to the poor and scholars.

Wali is someone who has “walayah”, which is the authority or guardianship over property. He takes care of the property as a man of ordinary prudence would deal with it if it were his own.

The Shahnameh (Book of Kings) is the world's longest epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi (also spelled Firdausi). It chronicles the history and mythology of Persian kings from creation to the Arab conquest of Persia in the 7th century. Ibn-Batuta was a traveler, Alberuni a scholar, and Chand Bardai a poet.

Al-Biruni (Alberuni) was a Persian scholar who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni during his invasions of India in the 11th century. He wrote the famous 'Tarikh Al-Hind' (History of India) based on his observations. He was not associated with Mohamed Ghouri, Qutubuddin Aibak, or Babur who came later.