Constitutions and Law

As the Constitution neared completion, the Assembly resolved on 17 September 1949 to translate the Constitution into Hindi and other Indian languages to make it accessible to all citizens.

The Constituent Assembly held eleven sessions for constitution-making, with the twelfth and final session on 24 January 1950 to formally adopt the Constitution before it came into effect.

The Constitution was originally printed in three copies - one in English and two in Hindi, with each handwritten copy signed by all members of the Constituent Assembly.

The Constituent Assembly worked on constitution-making from its first session on 9 December 1946 until it adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949, totaling 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days.

When the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949, it contained 395 Articles organized into 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. It has since been amended to 448 Articles (as of 2023).

The Drafting Committee's first draft, presented in 1948, contained 315 Articles and 8 Schedules. After extensive debate and amendments, the final Constitution had 395 Articles.

The Draft Constitution of India had approximately 7,365 amendments proposed during the Constituent Assembly debates. This large number reflects the intensive deliberation and detailed scrutiny that each clause underwent. The other options (7935, 7892, 2473) are not historically accurate figures.

The first draft of the Indian Constitution was published in October 1947, shortly after independence. This draft was then circulated to members for review and discussion. The Constituent Assembly had been formed in December 1946, but the actual drafting took several months.

Article 89 of the Indian Constitution states that the Vice-President of India shall be the ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha), and the Council shall choose a Deputy Chairman from among its members. This establishes the leadership structure of the Rajya Sabha.

Article 93 of the Indian Constitution states that the House of the People (Lok Sabha) shall, as soon as may be, choose two members to be Speaker and Deputy Speaker. When the offices of both Speaker and Deputy Speaker are vacant, the House shall choose another member to be Speaker.

Indian Parliament is not sovereign because: (1) The Preamble declares the people of India as sovereign, not Parliament; (2) The written Constitution limits parliamentary power; (3) Separation of powers with checks and balances among Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary prevents any one organ from becoming supreme.

The Supreme Court of India, through the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), established the 'basic structure doctrine' - that Parliament's amendment power under Article 368 cannot alter the basic features of the Constitution. The Court determines what constitutes 'basic structure'.

Article 368 grants the power to amend the Constitution to Parliament. While the Judiciary interprets the Constitution and the Executive implements laws, only Parliament has the constituent power to amend the Constitution (subject to judicial review for basic structure).

The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) primarily dealt with the scope of Parliament's amendment power under Article 368. The Supreme Court held that while Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution, it cannot alter its 'basic structure'.

In Golak Nath v. State of Punjab (1967), the Supreme Court held that Fundamental Rights are 'transcendental and immutable' and cannot be abridged or taken away even through constitutional amendments. This was a landmark ruling that established the supremacy of Fundamental Rights. However, this position was later overturned in Kesavananda Bharati (1973), which established the 'basic structure' doctrine instead.