Behavioral Psychology and Physiology

Good posture includes back straight, eyes properly positioned on monitor, and feet flat on the floor. Elbows should be at 90 degrees with arms resting naturally - placing elbows ON the table is poor ergonomics and can cause strain, making it the exception.

Database recovery uses two fundamental approaches: forward recovery (also called roll-forward) applies logged changes from a checkpoint to restore the database to a more recent state, while backward recovery (rollback) undoes incomplete or erroneous transactions to return to a consistent state. Together, these mechanisms ensure ACID properties after failures.

Overt behaviour is observable, measurable action that can be seen by others. Watching a TV show is overt because it's an observable physical activity. Options B, C, and D are all covert (internal mental processes): thinking, feeling sad, and wondering are mental activities not directly observable.

Covert behaviour refers to internal mental processes that are not directly observable - thoughts, feelings, memories, and physiological states. Remembering a pleasant experience (C) is purely mental. Options A, B, and D are all overt: blinking, imitating gestures, and eye movements during sleep are physically observable.

Biopsychology (or biological psychology) studies how biological processes, particularly brain structures and mechanisms, underlie behaviour and mental processes. Hunger and thirst are drives regulated by specific brain areas. Personality theorists study traits, sensory psychologists study perception, and learning theorists study conditioning.

The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that processes emotions, especially fear. It triggers the fight-or-flight response by activating the hypothalamus. The midbrain handles sensory processing, left/right hemispheres have lateralized functions (language/spatial), but neither is specialized for fear like the amygdala.

Blood sugar (glucose) level is the most critical hunger signal according to the glucostatic theory - when glucose drops, hunger increases. Stomach contractions (hunger pangs) are a symptom, not the control mechanism. Taste and weakness/fatigue can influence eating but are secondary to glucose levels. The brain monitors glucose via receptors and triggers hunger when levels fall.

Stage 4 (deep sleep/slow-wave sleep) has the highest arousal threshold. Waking from it causes sleep inertia - confusion, grogginess, disorientation. Stage 1 is light sleep (easy to awaken, aware). Stage 2 has sleep spindles but moderate arousal threshold. Stage 3 is also deep sleep but Stage 4 is the deepest, hence maximal confusion upon abrupt awakening.

Smiling is recognized across all cultures as expressing happiness/friendliness - it's the most universal facial expression. Darwin noted this universality. Pursed lips can indicate disapproval or thought but meanings vary. Tongue-sticking is culturally specific (ridicule in some cultures, greeting in Tibet). Raised eyebrows can signal surprise or greeting but isn't as universally understood as smiling.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, the bell (originally neutral) became the conditioned stimulus after being paired with food (unconditioned stimulus). The dogs learned to salivate to the bell alone. Salivation itself is the response, not a stimulus.

In classical conditioning (Pavlovian learning), the critical events (CS-US pairing) occur BEFORE the conditioned response develops. The organism learns to predict the US from the CS. This distinguishes it from operant conditioning where consequences follow responses.

Social psychology research (e.g., Walster et al.'s Computer Dance study) consistently shows that physical attractiveness strongly predicts dating frequency for FEMALES in the early stages. For males, the relationship is weaker and other factors (status, confidence) matter more. The 'both' option would dilute this established gender difference finding.

Elaborative rehearsal involves connecting new information to existing knowledge and creating meaningful associations, which enhances long-term retention. Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition. Dual memory and long-term memory describe memory systems or storage, not the active process of meaning-based encoding.

Dyslexia is a Specific Learning Disability characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling and decoding abilities. Mental Retardation (now called Intellectual Disability) is not a learning disability but rather a condition affecting general intellectual functioning. ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting attention and impulse control, while Autistic spectrum disorders are pervasive developmental disorders affecting social communication and behavior.

Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) are classified as Developmental Disorders in DSM-5, characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, along with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. ADHD (A) is a Neurodevelopmental Disorder but not specifically classified as a Developmental Disorder in the same category. Dyslexia (B) is a Specific Learning Disorder, not a Developmental Disorder. Mental Retardation (C), now called Intellectual Disability, is a Neurodevelopmental Disorder but is distinct from Developmental Disorders classification.