Carbohydrates and Biomolecules

Phosphoglucoisomerase (also called phosphohexose isomerase) converts glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate in glycolysis. This is an isomerization reaction.

L- and D-amino acid configurations are based on the stereochemical reference compound D- and L-glyceraldehyde, not glucose. Glyceraldehyde is the standard chiral reference molecule in organic chemistry. L-glucose and D-glucose themselves are assigned based on glyceraldehyde configuration.

Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar, approximately 1.7 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar) and much sweeter than glucose or maltose. This is why fructose is used as a sweetener in many processed foods. Sucrose (common sugar), glucose (blood sugar), and maltose (malt sugar) are all less sweet by comparison.

Hemoglobin is a protein not a carcbohydrate.

Cellulose is a classic imbibant - it absorbs water and swells without dissolving because it's hydrophilic but insoluble. Glucose, fructose, and sucrose are all soluble sugars that dissolve in water rather than imbibe it and swell.

Fungal cell walls are primarily composed of chitin, a tough polysaccharide also found in insect exoskeletons. This distinguishes fungi from plants (cellulose cell walls) and helps identify fungal cells. Pectin and lignin are plant cell wall components, not fungal.

Disaccharides contain 3-10 glucose units. These sugars can be hydrolysed into molecules of monosaccharide by the action of enzymes. They may be considered as glycosides formed by the condensation of two molecules of covalently linked monosaccharide. The empirical formula of disaccharide is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁.

It is commonly known as milk sugar and is abundantly found in milk. On hydrolysis one molecule of lactose yields one molecule of galactose and a molecule of glucose. It is a reducing sugar.

Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple monosaccharide found in many foods. It is one of the three important dietary monosaccharides along with glucose and galactose.

A glycosidic bond is formed between the hemiacetal group of a saccharide (or a molecule derived from a saccharide) and the hydroxyl group of some organic compound such as an alcohol.It is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

A hemicellulose is a heteropolymer present in almost all plant cell walls. It has a random, amorphous structure with little strength. It is easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as myriad hemicellulase enzymes.

Xylose is a sugar first isolated from wood, and named for it. Xylose is classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type, which means that it contains five carbon atoms and includes an aldehyde functional group. It is the precursor to hemicellulose,

Galactitol is a sugar alcohol, the reduction product of galactose.It is produced from galactose in a reaction catalyzed by aldose reductase. Galactose itself comes from the metabolism of the disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose.

Glucosamine is an amino sugar and a prominent precursor in the biochemical synthesis of glycosylated proteins and lipids. Glucosamine is part of the structure of the polysaccharides chitosan and chitin, which compose the exoskeletons of crustaceans.

The Shi epoxidation is a chemical reaction described as an asymmetric epoxidation of olefins with oxone (potassium peroxymonosulfate) and a fructose-derived catalyst.