Psychological and Sociological Theories

Freud's students like Jung, Adler, and Horney broke away to develop their own theories, modifying and changing his original concepts. This led to the development of Neo-Freudian approaches. Option A is incorrect because Freud's theories greatly influenced psychology. Option B is incorrect because psychodynamic theories have evolved significantly. Option D is incorrect because psychodynamic psychology focuses on unconscious processes, not observable behaviours (that's behaviourism).

A personality theory is an interrelated system of concepts used to explain personality. It provides a framework for understanding why people behave consistently differently, organizing observations and predictions about personality into a coherent explanatory system.

The encoding-storage-retrieval model follows the information-processing approach, which conceptualizes the mind as a computer-like system that processes information through distinct stages. Behaviourism focuses on observable behavior, empiricism on sensory experience, and nativism on innate knowledge.

Siblings provide children with unique social experiences - learning negotiation, conflict resolution, perspective-taking, and cooperation - which are fundamental to developing social competence. While companionship and competition occur, the key developmental contribution is the breadth of social experience siblings provide.

Erik Erikson was the first to systematically study and theorize about personal and social identity development during adolescence. His concept of 'identity versus role confusion' as the central crisis of adolescence established identity formation as a key developmental task of this period.

According to Piaget, when preoperational children with egocentric perspectives interact, their conflicting views create cognitive disequilibrium. This social conflict forces them to consider different perspectives, which stimulates decentration - the ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously.

Trait theorists attempt to identify, classify, and understand the relationships between personality traits and how they influence behavior. Their approach involves organizing traits into meaningful categories and discovering how these traits predict and relate to behavioral patterns. This is fundamentally different from trying to fit people into traits or simply increasing the number of identified traits without understanding their structure. The goal is to create a systematic taxonomy of personality traits.

Social psychology studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others - peer influence is a core topic. Comparative studies animals, physiological examines brain/body mechanisms, and school psychology focuses on educational settings - none study social influence like social psychology does.

As all of the above are included in the Erikson stages, so it is the right answer.

Elaboration likelihood Model is a model that identifies two processes by which communication can lead to persuasion-central and peripheral routes.

A major strength of ecological theory is its framework for explaining environmental influences on development.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are sensory motor, pre-operational, concreate operational and formal operational.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs explains this extreme behavior best - when basic physiological needs (food, survival) are unmet, humans will resort to extreme measures to survive. A mother selling her child to obtain food represents the desperate prioritization of survival over all other needs. Psychoanalytic theory (A) focuses on unconscious conflicts, psychosocial theory (C) on social development stages, and reinforcement theory (D) on behavior modification - none explain survival-driven desperation as comprehensively as Maslow.

Communication theory is a field of information and mathematics that studies the technical process of information.

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors of individuals.