Medieval and Islamic History

The Tughlaq dynasty was ruling the Delhi Sultanate when Timur invaded India in 1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mohammad (Nasiruddin Mahmud) was the Tughlaq ruler, representing a dynasty that had been in power since 1320. The invasion severely weakened the already declining Tughlaq authority and paved the way for the Sayyid dynasty to take control shortly after.

Sikandar Lodi established the city of Agra in 1504 and made it his capital, shifting from Delhi. Agra's strategic location on the banks of the Yamuna River made it an important center for trade and military control. The city later gained even greater prominence under the Mughals, but it was Sikandar Lodi who first recognized its potential and developed it as a major urban center.

Aurangzeb's reign saw the highest proportion of Hindu mansabdars compared to any previous Mughal ruler. Despite his orthodox religious policies, he pragmatically appointed Hindu Rajputs and Marathas to important military and administrative positions throughout his empire. This included high-ranking mansabdari positions, particularly in regions where Hindu rulers had been integrated into the Mughal system through submission or strategic alliances.

Father Monserrate visited India during Akbar's reign (1580-1582), not Jahangir's time. The other travellers - Terry (early 17th century), Pietro Della Valle (1620s), and Pelsaert (1620s) - all came during or after Jahangir's reign.

Bahlol Lodhi was the first Sultan of the Lodhi dynasty who discontinued the distribution of betels, sugar candy, and sugar on Teeja festival and instead ordered the distribution of flowers and rosewater. This reflected his personal preference and austerity.

Sikandar Lodhi composed poetry under the pen name 'Gulrukhi'. He was a patron of learning and literature, and wrote several poems in Persian. His court was adorned with scholars and poets, reflecting the cultural refinement of the Lodhi period.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517) was a contemporary of Mahmud Begada of Gujarat (1458-1511) and Rana Sanga of Chittor (1509-1527).

4. Babar

Mughal painting achieved its golden age and fullest development during Jahangir's reign (1605-1627). Jahangir was a great patron of arts who maintained a large atelier with painters like Mansur, Bishandas, and Abu'l Hasan. The period saw remarkable developments in portraiture, naturalistic representation of flora and fauna, and the fusion of Persian and Indian styles. While Akbar established the atelier, Jahangir's reign marked its peak.

Arab traders and travelers brought Islam to India's western coast (particularly Kerala) through peaceful maritime trade in the 7th century CE, well before Islamic conquests. Arab merchants came primarily for trade, while 'Arab travelers' better captures those who spread Islam through cultural contact. Turkish warriors conquered North India much later (12th century).

Iltumish (Shams ud-din Iltutmish), the third Sultan of Delhi (1211-1236), introduced the Iqtadari system - a land revenue system where land was assigned to officials (iqtadars) in lieu of salary. Akbar later refined it as the Mansabdari system, and Ala-ud-din Khilji had his own revenue reforms. Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiments were different.

Akbar constructed the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 as a meeting hall where scholars, theologians, and philosophers of various religions could hold discussions on spiritual and religious matters.

Buland Darwaza (Gate of Victory) was constructed by Emperor Akbar in 1601 to commemorate his victory over Gujarat. Standing 54 meters high, it's the highest gateway in the world and part of the Fatehpur Sikri palace complex near Agra.

Akbar the Great is well-known for his policy of religious tolerance (Sulh-i-kul) and for abolishing the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. He even attempted to create a syncretic religion called Din-i-Ilahi to unite his diverse subjects under a common moral code.