International Law

Option C is correct. Law-making treaties are the primary method of creating binding international law, just as domestic legislation creates binding law within a state. Both are formal, written instruments that create legal obligations. Custom (Option A) is unwritten and evolves differently, while delegated legislation (Option D) is subordinate to primary legislation.

Panchayats handle local village matters. Municipalities manage urban civic services. Land tribunals resolve land disputes within a country. International disputes between nations are settled through diplomatic channels, international arbitration, or bodies like the ICJ - not any of these local bodies.

The chronological order of these treaties is: (iv) The Pact of Paris (1928, also known as Kellogg-Briand Pact), (iii) Convention on the Prevention of Genocide (1948), (ii) European Convention on Human Rights (1950), and (i) Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951). This sequence reflects the post-WWII development of international human rights law, starting with renouncing war, then addressing genocide, establishing regional human rights protection in Europe, and finally creating the refugee protection regime.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and settles legal disputes between states. The UN as an organization facilitates dispute resolution through diplomatic means, but actual judicial settlement is done by the ICJ. Supreme Courts are national bodies, and Panchayats are local governance institutions.

Article 51 of the Directive Principles explicitly promotes international peace and security, respect for international law, treaty obligations, and peaceful dispute resolution through arbitration. Article 48 deals with animal husbandry, 49 with protection of monuments, and 50 with separation of judiciary from executive.

The matching pairs are: (a) John Austin described international law as 'positive international morality' rather than true law; (b) William Blackstone held that international customary law is automatically part of common law; (c) Michael Akehurst argued that opinio juris is not always a condition precedent for international custom (contrary to the traditional view); (d) Hersch Lauterpacht noted that while General Assembly resolutions generally don't create binding obligations, those recommending specific action to administering states may create some legal obligation. Option A correctly matches all four.

The formal sources of international law, as enumerated in Article 38(1) of the ICJ Statute, include international conventions (treaties), international custom, and the general principles of law. Judicial decisions and arbitral awards serve as subsidiary means for determining rules of law. Therefore, all the options listed - Custom, Treaties, and Decisions of tribunals - constitute formal sources.

The Genocide case is NOT correctly matched with 'Reservation to treaties.' The Genocide Case (Bosnia v. Serbia) primarily dealt with the interpretation and application of the Genocide Convention, particularly the intent requirement (dolus specialis) and state responsibility. The Nottebohm case actually established the genuine link test for nationality, not non-use of force. The Reparation case did address legal personality of international institutions, and Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries did concern territorial sea measurement.

The Savarkar case (1911) dealt with extradition treaties between Britain and France. Savarkar, a freedom fighter, escaped from a British ship in French waters. The court held that Britain violated extradition procedures, establishing important precedents about international obligations and the rights of political prisoners/decolonization activists.

Statement (i) is correct - the UDHR (1948) is indeed called the 'International Magna Carta of Mankind.' Statement (ii) is correct - India ratified the ICCPR in 1979 and acceded to its First Optional Protocol in 2019. Statement (iii) is incorrect - India signed the UN Convention Against Torture (1984) but has NOT ratified it to date. Therefore, only (i) and (ii) are correct.

Sources of international law include treaties, international customs, general principles of law as recognised around the world, the decisions of national and lower courts, and scholarly writings. They are the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed. They have been influenced by a range of political and legal theories.

States and non-state actors like individuals, international organisations, multinational companies and international non-governmental organisations are regulated by, or subjected to, international law. They are called subjects of international law. These subjects have international legal personality. In other words, they have certain rights and duties under international law and they can exercise these rights and duties.

Sources of international law include treaties, international customs, general principles of law as recognised around the world, the decisions of national and lower courts, and scholarly writings. Constitution is not a source of international law.

In the resolution incorporating the outcome of the World Summit in September 2005, the UN General Assembly affirmed that the relevant provisions of the UN Charter are sufficient to address the full range of threats to international peace and security, and has reaffirmed the authority of the Security Council to mandate coercive action to maintain and restore peace and security. But the resolution did not deal with the question as to when it is lawful for a state to use force in the exercise of its inherent right of self-defence.