Human Reproduction and Contraception

Dysgerminomas produce placental alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase, so their level rises. Serum lactate dehydrogenase is most often measured to check for tissue damage.

Dysgerminomas are the most common malignant germ cell tumors, appraising for about 35% to 45% of all ovarian cancers of germ cell origin in females.

Intra-uterine contraception implies use of copper-T and loop.

Oral pills are hormonal method of family planning. Pills cause withdrawal of exogenous hormones which cause bleeding. Chemical methods include foam tablets, foam aerosols, creams, jellies, pastes, suppositeries, and soluble films.

The safe period of sexual intercourse is before 8^th day and after 21^st day of menstrual cycle.

Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and progesterone derivatives. Both of these compounds are hormones. The agents are used for this purpose are known as contraceptive agents. Examples are- Mestranol, Ethinyl estradiol, Norethindrone, Drospirenone, levonorgestral, etc.

 Progestrone reaches its peak during luteal phase of menstrual cycle.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is produced by the developing placenta shortly after implantation and is the hormone detected by pregnancy tests. Estrogen, progesterone, and LH are present in menstrual cycles but are not specific pregnancy markers in urine.

Corpus albicans lowers the level of progesterone in the blood during the premenstrual phase.

As reproductive tract cells divide rapidly, these areas of the body can be damaged at rem levels as low as 200.

Mirena is a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (IUS) classified as a hormonal/progesterone-containing IUCD. It provides long-term contraception for up to 5 years. It is not used for abortion (that's mifepristone), not just anti-progesterone, and not a subdermal implant (that's Implanon/Nexplanon).

Post-operative radiotherapy for endometrial cancer is indicated for high-risk features: deep myometrial invasion (>50%), pelvic lymph node involvement, and poor tumor differentiation (grade 3). Enlarged uterine cavity alone is a structural finding, not a risk factor for recurrence, so it is not an indication for radiotherapy.

Clomiphene citrate is used for ovulation induction in PCOS, increases risk of multiple pregnancies (10-15%), and long-term use may increase ovarian cancer risk. It is NOT a teratogen - studies show no increased risk of birth defects compared to the general population when used appropriately.

Oral contraceptive pills work primarily by inhibiting ovulation through synthetic hormones (estrogen and progestin) that suppress the natural hormonal cycle. This prevents egg release from the ovaries. They do not create physical barriers (like condoms) or directly kill sperm or ova - those are mechanisms of different contraceptive methods like IUDs or barrier methods.

Turner's syndrome (45,X) is a chromosomal condition in females characterized by monosomy X. Key features include rudimentary ovaries (streak ovaries), underdeveloped breasts, short stature, webbed neck, and sometimes learning difficulties. Down's involves trisomy 21, while Klinefelter's affects males (XXY).