Computer Fundamentals and System Concepts

Computer scientists are exploring the possibility of culturing bacteria to create living chips which have digital electronic properties. these chips called Biochips.

A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (microarrays) arranged on a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to achieve higher throughput and speed. Typically, a biochip's surface area is no larger than a fingernail. Like a computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical operations in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of biological reactions, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds.

A biochip is a miniaturized laboratory capable of performing thousands of simultaneous biochemical reactions. It is a collection of micro-test sites or microarrays which are arranged on the surface of a solid substrate and it is meant to perform multiple tests at the same time to achieve greater speed and throughput.

A biochip is much like a computer chip but instead of performing a multitude of mathematical operations per second, it performs biological reactions such as decoding genes and finding contaminations in a few seconds.

A modern digital computer has Extremely high speed, Large memory and Almost unlimited accuracy.

In computer science, a digital electronic computer is a computer machine which is both an electronic computer and a digital computer. Examples of a digital electronic computers include the IBM PC, the Apple Macintosh as well as modern smartphones.

The ALU performs the arithmetic and logic algorithms selected to process the incoming data at extremely high speeds—in many cases in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). The main memory, control unit, and ALU together make up the central processing unit (CPU) of most digital computer systems, while the input-output devices and auxiliary storage units constitute peripheral equipment.

Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. ... Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it.

IBM 7000 digital computer Has modular constructions.

Examples of modular systems are cars, computers, process systems, solar panels and wind turbines, elevators and modular buildings. ... Modular design is an attempt to combine the advantages of standardization (high volume normally equals low manufacturing costs) with those of customization.

A modular PC is a computer that has individually-housed components, which are interconnected but separately removable for service or upgrading. ... The Xi3 Piston is an extremely compact and power-efficient gaming computer.

The IBM 700/7000 series is a series of large-scale (mainframe) computer systems that were made by IBM through the 1950s and early 1960s. The series includes several different, incompatible processor architectures. The 700s use vacuum tube logic and were made obsolete by the introduction of the transistorized 7000s. The 7000s, in turn, were eventually replaced by System/360, which was announced in 1964.

IBM 7000 digital computer Has modular construction.

The IBM 700/7000 series is a series of large-scale (mainframe) computer systems that were made by IBM through the 1950s and early 1960s. The series includes several different, incompatible processor architectures. The 700s use vacuum tube logic and were made obsolete by the introduction of the transistorized 7000s. The 7000s, in turn, were eventually replaced by System/360, which was announced in 1964. However the 360/65, the first 360 powerful enough to replace 7000s, did not become available until November 1965. Early problems with OS/360 and the high cost of converting software kept many 7000s in service for years afterward.

The earliest device that qualifies as a digital computer is Abacus

The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans. Early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, such as the abacus, were called "calculating machines", called by proprietary names, or referred to as calculators. The machine operator was called the computer.

1,00,00,00,000 operations per second can perform by a modern fast mainframe digital computer.

Under ideal circumstances, a high-end desktop x86 processor can execute over 100 billion instructions per second. In real world usage scenarios, however, the CPU is often stuck waiting for other components to answer back, mostly RAM and disk.

Clock Speeds are usually determined in MHz, 1 MHz representing 1 million cycles per second, or in GHz, 1 GHz representing 1 thousand million cycles per second. The higher the CPU speed, the better a computer will perform, in a general sense.

In analog computer Input is never converted to digital form.

An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. ... Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity.

An analog computers, works by measuring voltages and currents rather than by the process of counting. An analog computers works on supply of continuous electrical signals and display outputs continuously. Side rule is an example analog device in which numbered as expressed as distances.

After being denied Cray supercomputers, India started a program to develop indigenous supercomputers and supercomputing technologies.

The first super Computer in India was Param 8000 . It was an Initiative program of Center for Development of Advanced Computing(C-DAC) in India which was started in 1980’s.

In 1991 Param 8000 became the first super computer of India.

Smaller and less expensive PC-based servers are replacing Mainframe in many businesses.

Mainframe computers (colloquially referred to as "big iron"[1]) are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications; bulk data processing, such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning; and transaction processing. They are larger and have more processing power than some other classes of computers: minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers.

Modern mainframes can run multiple different instances of operating systems at the same time. This technique of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they were on physically distinct computers. In this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now available on most families of computer systems, though not always to the same degree or level of sophistication.

Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing.

Supercomputers are specially designed computers that perform complex calculations extremely rapidly.

A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS). As of 2017, there are supercomputers which can perform up to nearly a hundred quadrillion FLOPS. As of November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the United States, the European Union, Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more powerful and more technologically superior exascale supercomputers.

The IBM Blue Gene supercomputer uses the CNK operating system on the compute nodes, but uses a modified Linux-based kernel called I/O Node Kernel (INK) on the I/O nodes. CNK is a lightweight kernel that runs on each node and supports a single application running for a single user on that node.

A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system that is designed for network use. ... In particular, UNIX was designed from the beginning to support networking, and all of its descendants (i.e., Unix-like operating systems) including Linux and Mac OSX, feature built-in networking support.

IBM 7000 digital computer Has modular construction.

The IBM 7000 series is a series of large-scale (mainframe) computer systems that were made by IBM through the 1950s and early 1960s. The series includes several different, incompatible processor architectures. The 700s use vacuum tube logic and were made obsolete by the introduction of the transistorized 7000s. The 7000s, in turn, were eventually replaced by System/360, which was announced in 1964. However the 360/65, the first 360 powerful enough to replace 7000s, did not become available until November 1965. Early problems with OS/360 and the high cost of converting software kept many 7000s in service for years afterward.

Modular design, or "modularity in design", is a design approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules or skids, that can be independently created and then used in different systems. A modular system can be characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable, reusable modules; rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces; and making use of industry standards for interfaces.

Mainframe computers are specifically designed to support hundreds or thousands of users concurrently for large-scale transaction processing. While supercomputers are faster, they are typically optimized for complex calculations rather than multi-user support.

Unit of speed used for super computer is GELOPS. GELOPS comes from word gel/ops.

The digital computer was developed primarily in USA.

Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. John Vincent Atanasoff (October 4, 1903 – June 15, 1995) was an American-Bulgarian physicist and inventor, best known for being credited with inventing the first electronic digital computer. Atanasoff invented the first electronic digital computer in the 1930s at Iowa State College.

digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is used to process information with quantities using digits, usually using the binary number system.

Quantum Computer is the smallest and fastest computer imitating brain working.

Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement. A quantum computer is a device that performs quantum computing. Such a computer is different from binary digital electronic computers based on transistors. Whereas common digital computing requires that the data be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum computation uses quantum bits or qubits, which can be in superpositions of states. A quantum Turing machine is a theoretical model of such a computer, and is also known as the universal quantum computer. The field of quantum computing was initiated by the work of Paul Benioff and Yuri Manin in 1980, Richard Feynman in 1982, and David Deutsch in 1985.