Ancient and Medieval Indian Rulers

Bimbisara was the first ruler responsible for the rise of Magadha.

Bindusara, Chandragupta Maurya's son and Ashoka's father, was given the title 'Amitraghata' (Sanskrit for 'slayer of enemies') due to his successful military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan region.

When Alexander invaded India in 326-325 BCE, the Nanda dynasty under Dhana Nanda was ruling over North India with its capital at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna). The Nanda empire was very powerful but Alexander did not engage them in battle.

Shashanka, the ruler of Gaur (Bengal region), was a contemporary of Harshvardhana. In fact, Shashanka was Harsha's main rival and was responsible for killing Harsha's brother Rajyavardhana. He was a significant 7th-century ruler who opposed Harsha's expansion.

Gupta coins frequently depicted musical instruments like the veena, indicating the dynasty's patronage of music and arts. Samudragupta was himself an accomplished musician and was depicted playing the veena on some gold coins. The Gupta period is considered the golden age of Indian classical arts, with significant development in music, literature, and sculpture.

Yashodharman, the ruler of Malwa (central India), defeated Mihirkula, the cruel Huna invader, around 533 CE. Mihirkula had been terrorizing North India and destroying Buddhist monasteries. Yashodharman's victory is recorded in the Mandasor pillar inscription, which describes how he forced the Hunas to retreat beyond the Indus river and pay tribute.

Tamralipti (modern Tamluk in West Bengal) was the major port handling North Indian trade during the Gupta period. Located on the mouth of the Ganges river, it facilitated maritime trade with Southeast Asia and the Roman world. Archaeological evidence, including Roman coins and pottery, confirms its importance as an international trading hub.

Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II, 380-415 CE) received the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hien (Faxian) who visited India during 399-412 CE. Fa-Hien came to study Buddhist scriptures and visit holy sites, spending six years at Pataliputra alone. His travelogue provides valuable insights into early 5th century India during the Gupta golden age.

Skandagupta (455-467 CE) assumed the title "Ksitipasatapatih" (Lord of Hundred Kings) after his decisive victory over the Hunas. This title emphasized his supremacy over numerous feudatory kings who acknowledged his overlordship. Skandagupta's reign marked the last period of strong Gupta imperial power before the dynasty's decline.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878 CE), the greatest Rashtrakuta ruler, was so devoted to the goddess Mahalakshmi that according to Jain tradition, he cut off his fingers and offered them to the deity. This extreme act of devotion demonstrated his deep religious commitment. He was also a noted scholar and patron of Kannada literature, writing the Kavirajamarga.

Samudragupta (335-380 CE) was related to the powerful Licchavi clan of Nepal/Vaishali from his mother's side. His mother Kumaradevi was a Licchavi princess, which Samudragupta proudly highlighted in his Allahabad Pillar inscription (Prayag Prashasti) composed by his court poet Harishena. This matrimonial alliance enhanced the Gupta dynasty's prestige and power.

Option (2) is the correct answer. 

Kalankaik Kanni Narmudichera (also written as Kalangaik Kanninarmudichera) is specifically mentioned in Sangam literature with these unique epithets referring to his distinctive headgear made of fibre and the Kalangay (a type of ornament) festoon.

The Chola administrative hierarchy in descending order was: Mandalam (province) → Valanadu (division) → Nadu (district) → Khurram (village assembly). This four-tier system organized the empire efficiently for governance and revenue collection.

Krishna III of the Rashtrakuta dynasty defeated the Chola king Parantaka I (also known as Parantak Chola I) in the Battle of Takkolam around 949 CE. This was a significant victory that temporarily halted Chola expansion in northern Tamil Nadu.