Reading Comprehension

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the boldfaced sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

According to paragraph 4 of the passage, the first known national flag in history

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

According to paragraph 6 of the passage, the number of flag designs increased because

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

Directions: Choose the word nearest in meaning from the given options for the word primitive in the passage.

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

Directions: Choose the word nearest in meaning from the given options for the word convenience in the passage.

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

According to the passage, which of the following is true in the biological definition of a species?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

Directions: Choose the word nearest in meaning from the given options for the word components in the passage.

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

The word them in the passage refers to

Read the passage and answer the following question.

NATIONAL FLAGS

 The flag, the most common symbol of national identity in the modern world, is also one of the most ancient. The traditional flag of fabric is still used to mark buildings, ships, and diplomatic caravans by national affiliation, but its visual design makes it adaptable for other roles as well. Most flags have a compact, rectangular shape and distinct visual symbolism. Their strong colors and geometric patterns are usually instantly recognizable even if miniaturized to less than a square centimeter. Images of flags can thus serve as identifying icons on airliners, television broadcasts, and computer displays.
Despite its simplicity the national flag as we know it today is in no way a primitive artifact It is, rather, the product of millennia of development in many corners of the globe. Historians believe it had two major ancestors, of which the earlier served to indicate wind direction. (A<)  Early human societies used very fragile shelters and boats. (B<) Their food sources were similarly vulnerable to disruption. (C<)  Even after various grains had been domesticated, people needed cooperation from the elements to assure good harvests. For all these reasons, they feared and depended on the power of the wind, which could bring warmth from one direction and cold from another.

Ascertaining the direction of the wind using a simple strip of cloth tied to the top of a post was more reliable than earlier methods, such as watching the rising of smoke from a fire or the swaying of field grasses. The association of these prototypes of the flag with divine power was therefore a natural one. (D<)  Tribes began to fix long cloth flutters to the tops of totems before carrying them into battle, believing that the magical assistance of the wind would be added to the blessings of the gods and ancestors represented by the totem itself.

These flutters may seem like close kin of our present-day flags, but the path through history from one to the other wanders through thousands of years and over several continents. The first known flag of a nation or ruler was unmarked: The king who established the Chou Dynasty in China (around 1000 B.C.) was reputed to have a white flag carried ahead of him. This practice may have been adopted from Egyptians even further in the past, but it was from China that it spread over trade routes through India, then across Arab lands, and finally to medieval Europe.

In Europe, the Chinese-derived flag met up with the modern flag’s second ancestor, the heraldic crest. The flags used in Asia may have been differentiated by color, but they rarely featured emblems or pictures. European nobles of the medieval period had, however, developed a system of crests (symbols or insignias specific to particular families) that were commonly mounted on hard surfaces, shields to be used in battle often displayed them especially prominently.

The production of these crests on flags permitted them to be used as heralds, meaning that they functioned as visual announcements that a member of an important household was present. While crests began to appear on flags as well as shields, the number of prominent families was also increasing. They required an ever greater number of combinations of stripes, crosses, flowers, and mythical animals to distinguish themselves. These survived as the basic components of flag design when small regional kingdoms were later combined into larger nation-states. They remain such for many European countries today.

Some nations, particularly those whose colors and emblems date back several hundred years, have different flags for different official uses. For example, the flag of Poland is a simple rectangle with a white upper half and red lower half. The colors themselves have been associated with Polish nationalism since the 1700s. They originated as the colors of the Piast family, which during its rule displayed a crest bearing a white eagle on a red field. Homage is paid to the Piast Dynasty in the Polish ensign, the flag officially used at sea. Unlike the familiar plain flag flown on land, the ensign has a red shield with a white eagle centered on its upper white stripe.

According to the author, the concept of plain chants was

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
The modern entertainment called opera is a child of the Roman Catholic Church. What might be described as operatic tendencies in the music of worship date further back than the foundation of Christianity. The Egyptians were accustomed to sing "jubilations" to their gods, and the Greeks caroled on vowels in honor of their deities. From these practices descended into the musical part of the earliest Christian worship a certain rhapsodic and exalted style of delivery.
That this element should have disappeared for a considerable time from the church music is not at all remarkable, for in the first steps toward regulating the liturgy, simplification was a prime requisite. Thus in the centuries before Gregory, the plain chant gained complete ascendancy in the church and under him it acquired a systematization which had in it the elements of permanency.
Yet it was through the adaptation of this very chant to the delineation of episodes in religious history that the path to the opera was opened. As ceremonials became more and more elaborate, they approached more and more closely the ground on which the ancient dramatic dance rested, and it was not long before they themselves acquired a distinctly dramatic character. It is at this point that the liturgical ancestry of the opera becomes quite manifest. The dance itself, at first an attempt to delineate dramatically by means of measured movement was not without its place in the early church. At one time Christian priests executed solemn dances before their altars just as their Greek predecessors had done. But in the course of time the dance became generally practiced by the congregation and this gave rise to abuses. The authorities of the church abandoned it. But the feeling for it lingered, and in after years issued in the employment of the procession. When the procession left the sanctuary and displayed itself in the open air, something of the nature of the dance returned to it and its development into a dramatic spectacle was not difficult.
Coussemaker finds that lyric drama had in its inception two chief varieties, namely, the secular drama, and the religious or liturgical drama. “Each of these dramas,” he says, "had its own particular subject matter, character, charms and style.
The liturgical drama, which was chronologically the first of the two forms, originated in the ceremonies of the Christian church, in the strong dramatic element which inheres in the mass, the Christmas fêtes, and the Epiphany. These are all scenes in the drama of the sacrifice of the Redeemer, and it required but small progress to develop them into real dramatic performances, designed for the instruction of a people which as yet had no literature.
Out of these ceremonies, then, grew the liturgical drama. It is certain that the educational drama of the church continued in the state of its infancy for several centuries. Several interesting manuscripts in great libraries attest the consideration accorded to it at a period much later than that of which we have been speaking.

What is the tone of the author in this passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
The modern entertainment called opera is a child of the Roman Catholic Church. What might be described as operatic tendencies in the music of worship date further back than the foundation of Christianity. The Egyptians were accustomed to sing "jubilations" to their gods, and the Greeks caroled on vowels in honor of their deities. From these practices descended into the musical part of the earliest Christian worship a certain rhapsodic and exalted style of delivery.
That this element should have disappeared for a considerable time from the church music is not at all remarkable, for in the first steps toward regulating the liturgy, simplification was a prime requisite. Thus in the centuries before Gregory, the plain chant gained complete ascendancy in the church and under him it acquired a systematization which had in it the elements of permanency.
Yet it was through the adaptation of this very chant to the delineation of episodes in religious history that the path to the opera was opened. As ceremonials became more and more elaborate, they approached more and more closely the ground on which the ancient dramatic dance rested, and it was not long before they themselves acquired a distinctly dramatic character. It is at this point that the liturgical ancestry of the opera becomes quite manifest. The dance itself, at first an attempt to delineate dramatically by means of measured movement was not without its place in the early church. At one time Christian priests executed solemn dances before their altars just as their Greek predecessors had done. But in the course of time the dance became generally practiced by the congregation and this gave rise to abuses. The authorities of the church abandoned it. But the feeling for it lingered, and in after years issued in the employment of the procession. When the procession left the sanctuary and displayed itself in the open air, something of the nature of the dance returned to it and its development into a dramatic spectacle was not difficult.
Coussemaker finds that lyric drama had in its inception two chief varieties, namely, the secular drama, and the religious or liturgical drama. “Each of these dramas,” he says, "had its own particular subject matter, character, charms and style.
The liturgical drama, which was chronologically the first of the two forms, originated in the ceremonies of the Christian church, in the strong dramatic element which inheres in the mass, the Christmas fêtes, and the Epiphany. These are all scenes in the drama of the sacrifice of the Redeemer, and it required but small progress to develop them into real dramatic performances, designed for the instruction of a people which as yet had no literature.
Out of these ceremonies, then, grew the liturgical drama. It is certain that the educational drama of the church continued in the state of its infancy for several centuries. Several interesting manuscripts in great libraries attest the consideration accorded to it at a period much later than that of which we have been speaking.

The passage suggests the following about the Japanese way of ensuring business competitiveness: I. Egalitarian work culture which emphasizes conformity. II. Having people from the clan at the helm of affairs. III. Conjoined business interests promoting synergy of operations.

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
Although it would not be evident till nearly a century late, the reforms initiated during the Meiji era heralded the advent of Japan’s management practices that contributed to making it one of the largest economies in the world. In an effort to maintain a low trade deficit, the Japanese initiated trade practices which recompensed innovation rather than rely on trade for fulfilling the nation’s needs.
Many long-practiced management practices of Nippon set it apart from the rest of the world, especially in context of production practices. Unlike the west, workers on the production line are active participants in the process of decision making and according to industry estimates, production line workers, with their invaluable suggestions; whether on cutting costs or improving efficiency, save Japan billions of dollars each year. With the focus on production, and by being the quality production stronghold of the world, Japanese have ensured that their exports always outperform their imports. Of course, the fact that laws on imports are very restrictive also aids in maintaining the status quo.
A typically Japanese business practice called ‘keiritsu’ is the practice of having large and complex interdependent companies centered on banks owned by the same conglomerate. What that means is that the companies will buy raw material and components from one another, outsource jobs and production of key components among themselves, borrow money from the pool of common capital that is held in the form of public bank which conducts normal day-to-day operations of retail banking like any other bank, but also acts as the in house financier to the acquisitions and capital requirements of the companies within the cabal.
Another traditional feature of the Japanese business culture is the relatively lower stock in stock. While their western counterparts rely more on the stock market to raise capital, the conservative Japanese managers go to the bank to borrow capital. Decreased public holding, coupled with a culture that promotes aggressiveness amongst younger managers, allows the companies to focus on long term goals like market share and productivity without bothering too much about reporting quarterly losses and profits to the investors and share holders.
Many companies tend to be family held and even in the case of a public company, the majority or the controlling stake is held within a family or an extended family. While the phenomenon of directors from outside the family is very common in the United States, and many companies in fact pride themselves on the diversity within their board of directors, the Japanese companies are much more closely held and a non-family director would indeed be a curiosity. Unlike the west, both middle and senior management forms the board of directors in Japan. Indeed, it is very common to see directors who retain non administrative job responsibilities also.

What would be an appropriate title for the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
Although it would not be evident till nearly a century late, the reforms initiated during the Meiji era heralded the advent of Japan’s management practices that contributed to making it one of the largest economies in the world. In an effort to maintain a low trade deficit, the Japanese initiated trade practices which recompensed innovation rather than rely on trade for fulfilling the nation’s needs.
Many long-practiced management practices of Nippon set it apart from the rest of the world, especially in context of production practices. Unlike the west, workers on the production line are active participants in the process of decision making and according to industry estimates, production line workers, with their invaluable suggestions; whether on cutting costs or improving efficiency, save Japan billions of dollars each year. With the focus on production, and by being the quality production stronghold of the world, Japanese have ensured that their exports always outperform their imports. Of course, the fact that laws on imports are very restrictive also aids in maintaining the status quo.
A typically Japanese business practice called ‘keiritsu’ is the practice of having large and complex interdependent companies centered on banks owned by the same conglomerate. What that means is that the companies will buy raw material and components from one another, outsource jobs and production of key components among themselves, borrow money from the pool of common capital that is held in the form of public bank which conducts normal day-to-day operations of retail banking like any other bank, but also acts as the in house financier to the acquisitions and capital requirements of the companies within the cabal.
Another traditional feature of the Japanese business culture is the relatively lower stock in stock. While their western counterparts rely more on the stock market to raise capital, the conservative Japanese managers go to the bank to borrow capital. Decreased public holding, coupled with a culture that promotes aggressiveness amongst younger managers, allows the companies to focus on long term goals like market share and productivity without bothering too much about reporting quarterly losses and profits to the investors and share holders.
Many companies tend to be family held and even in the case of a public company, the majority or the controlling stake is held within a family or an extended family. While the phenomenon of directors from outside the family is very common in the United States, and many companies in fact pride themselves on the diversity within their board of directors, the Japanese companies are much more closely held and a non-family director would indeed be a curiosity. Unlike the west, both middle and senior management forms the board of directors in Japan. Indeed, it is very common to see directors who retain non administrative job responsibilities also.

All of the following are ascribed by economists as reasons behind the Great Depression except:

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
While historians focus mainly on the macro events that cause perceptible changes, the economists are more concerned with the minute details. It is a well known fact that many a time in history, the act of a single person has been responsible for a paradigm shift in the way the story is told. The economists go into the most exiguous detail possible to reach a conclusion. Also, the history is written by the victor, but economics thrives on various theories put forth by a multitude of experts. It therefore comes as no surprise that, even on an event of the magnitude of the Great Depression, the experts in the two subjects have conflicting views.
While the historians ascribe the meltdown to a host of macro factors like the cataclysmic crash of the stock market, the failure of the banks, and unemployment, the economists are more intent on finding the nuances and the recondite riff surrounding the turn of events. According to them, the rot in the system started much before and the Great Depression was actually a culmination of causative events rather than the starting point itself. They point towards the deflationary actions of the Federal Reserve, including regulating the currency in circulation in accordance to the Gold Standard and increasing the interest rates as some of the principal causes behind the fiasco. Also, the fact that Great Britain went back to pre World War Gold Standard also set in motion a set of protectionist policies that killed off trade between nations and added fuel to the fire. Although government spending, or rather the lack of it, is blamed for the crisis, a casual perusal of government spending in 1930 clearly points out that the governmental spending actually increased year on year in an effort to revive the economy. However, in a case of too little, too late, the actions failed to yield the desired results.
The historians cite bank failures and the reluctance of banks to lend money as a key factor. Blaming the lack of foresight by the financial regulators and the government, the economists contend that the stock market crash so frightened the common citizens that the they stopped spending. The decreased spending triggered off a chain of events that had far reaching repercussions. Businesses struggling to keep their heads above the water laid off employees to cut costs. This in turn, resulted in further reduction in consumer spending.
It is in our best interest if reconciliation between these two fields of study can be effected. It will allow us to sum up the findings with a degree of consensus that appeals not only to the scholars of economics but also to the historians who look for patterns in history.

What will be a suitable title for the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
The modern entertainment called opera is a child of the Roman Catholic Church. What might be described as operatic tendencies in the music of worship date further back than the foundation of Christianity. The Egyptians were accustomed to sing "jubilations" to their gods, and the Greeks caroled on vowels in honor of their deities. From these practices descended into the musical part of the earliest Christian worship a certain rhapsodic and exalted style of delivery.
That this element should have disappeared for a considerable time from the church music is not at all remarkable, for in the first steps toward regulating the liturgy, simplification was a prime requisite. Thus in the centuries before Gregory, the plain chant gained complete ascendancy in the church and under him it acquired a systematization which had in it the elements of permanency.
Yet it was through the adaptation of this very chant to the delineation of episodes in religious history that the path to the opera was opened. As ceremonials became more and more elaborate, they approached more and more closely the ground on which the ancient dramatic dance rested, and it was not long before they themselves acquired a distinctly dramatic character. It is at this point that the liturgical ancestry of the opera becomes quite manifest. The dance itself, at first an attempt to delineate dramatically by means of measured movement was not without its place in the early church. At one time Christian priests executed solemn dances before their altars just as their Greek predecessors had done. But in the course of time the dance became generally practiced by the congregation and this gave rise to abuses. The authorities of the church abandoned it. But the feeling for it lingered, and in after years issued in the employment of the procession. When the procession left the sanctuary and displayed itself in the open air, something of the nature of the dance returned to it and its development into a dramatic spectacle was not difficult.
Coussemaker finds that lyric drama had in its inception two chief varieties, namely, the secular drama, and the religious or liturgical drama. “Each of these dramas,” he says, "had its own particular subject matter, character, charms and style.
The liturgical drama, which was chronologically the first of the two forms, originated in the ceremonies of the Christian church, in the strong dramatic element which inheres in the mass, the Christmas fêtes, and the Epiphany. These are all scenes in the drama of the sacrifice of the Redeemer, and it required but small progress to develop them into real dramatic performances, designed for the instruction of a people which as yet had no literature.
Out of these ceremonies, then, grew the liturgical drama. It is certain that the educational drama of the church continued in the state of its infancy for several centuries. Several interesting manuscripts in great libraries attest the consideration accorded to it at a period much later than that of which we have been speaking.

The passage answers all of the following questions, except

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
Although it would not be evident till nearly a century late, the reforms initiated during the Meiji era heralded the advent of Japan’s management practices that contributed to making it one of the largest economies in the world. In an effort to maintain a low trade deficit, the Japanese initiated trade practices which recompensed innovation rather than rely on trade for fulfilling the nation’s needs.
Many long-practiced management practices of Nippon set it apart from the rest of the world, especially in context of production practices. Unlike the west, workers on the production line are active participants in the process of decision making and according to industry estimates, production line workers, with their invaluable suggestions; whether on cutting costs or improving efficiency, save Japan billions of dollars each year. With the focus on production, and by being the quality production stronghold of the world, Japanese have ensured that their exports always outperform their imports. Of course, the fact that laws on imports are very restrictive also aids in maintaining the status quo.
A typically Japanese business practice called ‘keiritsu’ is the practice of having large and complex interdependent companies centered on banks owned by the same conglomerate. What that means is that the companies will buy raw material and components from one another, outsource jobs and production of key components among themselves, borrow money from the pool of common capital that is held in the form of public bank which conducts normal day-to-day operations of retail banking like any other bank, but also acts as the in house financier to the acquisitions and capital requirements of the companies within the cabal.
Another traditional feature of the Japanese business culture is the relatively lower stock in stock. While their western counterparts rely more on the stock market to raise capital, the conservative Japanese managers go to the bank to borrow capital. Decreased public holding, coupled with a culture that promotes aggressiveness amongst younger managers, allows the companies to focus on long term goals like market share and productivity without bothering too much about reporting quarterly losses and profits to the investors and share holders.
Many companies tend to be family held and even in the case of a public company, the majority or the controlling stake is held within a family or an extended family. While the phenomenon of directors from outside the family is very common in the United States, and many companies in fact pride themselves on the diversity within their board of directors, the Japanese companies are much more closely held and a non-family director would indeed be a curiosity. Unlike the west, both middle and senior management forms the board of directors in Japan. Indeed, it is very common to see directors who retain non administrative job responsibilities also.