Early Human and Prehistoric Cultures

This is the correct option. The Kalangs were a community of skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators of Java.

'Krapina' as it is given in the first sentence of the passage.

Cro-Magnons appeared in Europe around 40,000 years ago and represent early modern humans (Homo sapiens) who succeeded Neanderthals. They were anatomically modern humans with advanced tools, art, and symbolic thinking, unlike earlier hominids like Java Man, Peking Man, or Australopithecus.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE) is termed 'Pre-Aryan' primarily because its undeciphered script and material culture predate the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers in India (c. 1500 BCE). The writing system of the Indus Valley is distinct from later Brahmi scripts and remains undeciphered, suggesting it belonged to a civilization that existed before Aryan migrations. While utensils, copper artifacts, and art are all important archaeological findings, the writing system provides the strongest evidence for its pre-Aryan chronological placement.

Statement 1 is correct - archaeological evidence from Harappa shows cotton cultivation and use. Statement 2 is incorrect - Harappans had extensive knowledge of copper and bronze, and created sophisticated bronze artifacts including the famous dancing figure. Statement 3 is incorrect - standard Harappan seals were made of steatite (a type of soft stone), not clay. Therefore, only statement 1 is correct, making option A the right answer.

The Indus Valley Civilization was primarily an agricultural society. Archaeological evidence shows extensive cultivation of wheat, barley, and other crops. While trade was important, agriculture was the foundation of their economy.

The Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE) flourished during the Bronze Age, characterized by urban planning, advanced drainage systems, and bronze artifacts. In simplified Indian educational contexts, this period is sometimes categorized broadly under the Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition framework.

The first metal tools developed during the Chalcolithic period were primarily used for clearing forests and preparing land for agriculture, as early civilizations expanded into new territories. Metal implements were more efficient than stone tools for felling trees and clearing vegetation. While metal tools were also used for pottery and later for wheel-making, the earliest and primary application was land clearance for settled agriculture.

Archaeological evidence from Harappa shows that extended burial was the primary funerary practice. Bodies were placed in rectangular pits, often in a supine position with head north, accompanied by pottery vessels. This differs from later Vedic cremation practices or urn burials found in other contemporary cultures.

The Chalcolithic age (metal age) began around 5000 BCE in the Indian subcontinent, marking the transition from stone tools to the use of copper and its alloys. This period saw the emergence of early farming communities and the beginning of metallurgy in regions like the Indus Valley.

The Indus Valley Civilization corresponds to the Mature Harappan phase (2600-1700 BCE). The Early Harappan phase preceded it, and the Late Harappan phase followed its decline. The Stone Age and Iron Age represent different technological periods spanning much longer chronologies and are not synonymous with IVC.

Dholavira in Gujarat is renowned for its extensive use of stone masonry and fortification walls that give it a castle-like appearance. Unlike the brick-based constructions of Mohenjodaro and Harappa, Dholavira's stone architecture resembles European castles.

Desalpur, Rojdi, and Bulakot are all smaller Indus Valley Civilization sites that had fortified structures and commercial architecture. These settlements served as trading outposts and their simpler fortifications resembled merchant castles rather than grand urban citadels.

Transhumance is the seasonal movement of livestock (sheep, cattle, goats) between mountain and valley pastures. Herders move animals to higher elevations in summer and lower valleys in winter, following available forage. Options A and D are too general - they don't capture the seasonal or bidirectional nature. Option B incorrectly refers to human migration for employment.

The Paleolithic age, meaning Old Stone Age, was the period when humans used crude stone tools. Neolithic came later with polished tools, and Mesolithic was the transitional period between them.