Political Systems and Government

Heterarchy refers to a system of rule where foreign power governs a territory, distinct from other forms like kritarchy (rule by judges) or hagiocracy (rule by saints). This is an obscure political science term.

The term 'Duma' refers to the elected legislative body in Russia. The State Duma is the lower house of the Russian Federal Assembly. Historically, the Duma was established by Tsar Nicholas II in 1905 as part of the October Manifesto, following the Russian Revolution of 1905. It represents an elected parliamentary body in the Russian political system.

Democracy is a government system where power is held by the people - they exercise it directly or through elected representatives. This famous phrase comes from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. A dictator rules alone, an actor performs, and democracy is the correct answer.

 Despotism is a form of government in which one person holds supreme power.

The Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909) are primarily known for introducing the system of Separate Electorates for Muslims. This allowed Muslims to vote only for Muslim candidates, effectively institutionalizing communal politics. This was done at the insistence of the Muslim League and is seen as the first official acceptance of the two-nation theory principle. The reforms did not create dyarchy (that came in 1919) or provincial autonomy (that came in 1935).

Elections are the most effective means of citizen control over administration because they allow citizens to directly choose their representatives and hold them accountable through the power of voting. Unlike lobbies, media, or committees, voting gives citizens direct decision-making power.

Herman Finer defined civil service as a professional, permanent, paid, and skilled body of officials. This emphasizes key characteristics: professional expertise, continuity (permanence), salary-based employment, and specialized skills required for effective governance.

A bureau is an administrative unit where power is vested in a single individual (the bureau chief). In contrast, councils, committees, and boards are collective decision-making bodies where power is distributed among multiple members.

Committed bureaucracy refers to a bureaucratic system fully aligned with and committed to implementing the ruling political party's programs. Unlike 'politicized bureaucracy' (which implies partisan manipulation), committed bureaucracy actively supports the government's policy agenda.

Audit of State Government comes under the Union List (Entry 77). The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audits both central and state governments, making it a Union subject. State subjects (Item 2) exclude audit.

During Robespierre's government and the Reign of Terror, aristocratic titles like Monsieur and Madame were abolished and replaced with Citizen and Citizeness to promote equality. This reflected the revolutionary ideal that all people were equal citizens of the nation, regardless of social class.

Bureaucracy means a government run by officers. So, option 3 is the correct answer.

The term 'Fourth Estate' refers to the press and journalism. The traditional three 'estates' were the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The press was called the Fourth Estate because of its power to influence public opinion and hold the other estates accountable, making it essential for democracy.

The term 'Fourth Estate' refers to the press and news media, distinct from the three estates of parliament (clergy, nobility, commoners). It signifies the media's role as a watchdog of democracy.