Political Systems and Governance

The author is primarily concerned with

Directions: This question is based on the following reading passage. Choose the best answer to the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage.

With the proliferation of electronic technologies in the latter part of the twentieth century, many aspects of cultural practice have been redefined. The eradication of physical boundaries that limit discourse and information access has had profound effects upon the manner in which we conduct democracy. Yet, opinions strongly differ over whether or not the growth of electronic networks will result in expanded democracy. On one side of the debate are anti-utopians who fear that with the intrusion of the Internet into many facets of life, personal freedom will be impeded and the existing rift between the "haves" and "have-nots" in society will grow. On the other side, many 'cyber-utopians' believe that new technologies can eliminate the democracy of elected representatives with which so many people are dissatisfied. The Internet, they say, will allow for a true participatory democracy in which citizens can govern themselves without the interference of bureaucrats and legislators.
Neither of these theories by themselves can fully address the role of democracy in the age of information. As debates about censorship and encryption have shown, government regulation of the Internet can result in violations of the basic rights of speech set forth in the constitution of the United States. Yet, groups that preach ‘Big
Brother’ theories of paranoia tend to neglect the fact that new technologies can help balance the injustices of traditional power found in a centralized government. At the same time, the likelihood of doing away with the present system of democracy in favor of complete and pure self-governance seems impossible, and likely undesirable.
Both arguments about the future of the way in which discourse will occur highlight the inherent relationship between communication and democracy. Perhaps a more useful model for the study of this dynamic can be found in the model of the public sphere proposed by Jorgen Habermas. In this realm, free and diverse equals come together to deliberate and discuss pertinent issues without the impediment of external coercion. The ensuing dialogue transpires in a profoundly democratic forum. The dispensing of traditional hierarchies that occurs on the Internet appears to make possible the type of categories necessary for Habermas ‘ideal speech situation to occur.
However, postmodern critics indicate that the autonomous individual no longer exists in a world where our identities are constructed as much for us as by us. And indeed, much of the postmodern notion of self seems to fit closely with reconfigurations of the subject brought on by electronic technologies. The question that arises then is, how might the reconfiguration of communication enabled by the Internet work to create a new form of 'cyber-democracy’ that better represents citizens' interests?

Which word is nearly the same in meaning as 'defile' as used in the passage?

Directions: Read the passage to answer the question given below.

Political education may be defined as the preparation of a citizen to take well informed, responsible and sustained action for participation in the national struggle for the realisation of the socio-economic objectives of the country. The overriding socio-economic objectives in India are the abolition of poverty and the creation of a modern democratic, secular and socialist society in place of the present traditional, feudal, hierarchical and inegalitarian one.

Under the British rule, the congress leaders argued that political education was an important part of education and refused to accept the official view that education and politics should not be mixed with one another. But when they came to power in 1947 they almost adopted the British policy and began to talk of education being defiled by politics. ‘Hands off education‘ was the call to political parties of that time. But in spite of it, political infiltration into the educational system has greatly increased in the sense that different parties vie with each other to capture the minds of teachers and students. The wise academicians wanted political support, without political interference. What we have actually received is infinite political interference. This interference with the educational system by political parties for their own ulterior motives is no political education at all; and with the all round growth of elitism, it is hardly surprising that real political education within the school system (which really means the creation of a commitment to social transformation) has been even weaker than in the pre-independence period.

At the same time, the freedom struggle came to an end and the major non-formal agency of political education disappeared. The press could and did provide some political education. But it did not utilise the opportunity to the fullest and the stranglehold of vested interests continued to dominate it. The same can be said about political parties as well as about other institutions and agencies outside the school system which can be expected to provide political education. All things considered, it appears that we have made no genuine progress in political education in the post independence period and even slid back in some respects. For instance, the education system has become even more elite-oriented. Patriotism has become the first casualty. Gandhiji gave us the courage to oppose the government when it was wrong, in a disciplined fashion and on basic principles. He believed the means to be as important as the ends and taught us to work among the poor people for mobilising and organising them. Today we have even lost the courage to fight on basic issues in a disciplined manner because agitation and anarchic politics for individual, group or party aggrandisement has become common. The education system of today continues to support domination of the privileged groups and domestication of the underprivileged ones. The situation will not change unless we take vigorous steps to provide genuine political education on an adequate scale. This is one of the major educational reforms we need; and if it is not carried out, mere linear expansion of the existing system of normal education will only support the status quo and hamper radical social transformation.

Consider the following statements. The republic view of democracy argues

1. full and active participation of citizens
2. accommodation and compromise between competing interests
3. people are the bearers of democracy that cannot be delegated
4. people cannot have others to represent them Which of the statements given above are correct?

Considered the following statements - Organized working class movement has remained deeply suspicious of the modes of representation prevalent in capitalist societies, because it feels:

1. representatives acting as trustees uphold hegemonic concerns.
2. representatives acting as delegates become spokes-persons of dominant interests.
3. parties carry out their mandates without making a serious dent in prevailing social relations.
4. even if a representative resembles members of the working classes, soon he/she comes to be co-opted within structures of power. Which of the statements given above are correct?