Civics Polity

Ethical Theories and Philosophy

2,306 Questions

Ethical theories and philosophy explore concepts such as Kantianism, virtue ethics, and altruism. This area examines how moral compasses are developed and how individual conscience guides decision making. It forms a vital part of general studies and civil services aptitude tests.

Kantian ethicsVirtue ethicsMoral developmentAltruism theoriesJustice and fairness

Ethical Theories and Philosophy Questions

Multiple choice

Which of the following is the recommended theory of punishment in view of human rights?

  1. Reformative Theory

  2. Retributive Theory

  3. Preventive Theory

  4. Deterrent Theory
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
A Correct answer
Explanation

Reformative theory is the recommended theory of punishment in view of human rights. This theory is the most humane of all the theories which aim to reform the legal offenders by individual treatment. The idea behind this theory is that no one is a born criminal and criminals are also humans. Under this theory, it is believed that if the criminals are trained and educated, they can be transformed into law abiding citizens.

Multiple choice

According to the theory of ‘social utilitarianism’ as propounded by Ihering,

  1. the greatest number of people should get the greatest pleasure

  2. law is a means to an end

  3. the balance is to be struck between the competing interests in society

  4. None of the above
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
B Correct answer
Explanation

Ihering elaborated the relation of law to social change. Even more influential in the 20th century was his law as a means to an end, which maintained that the purpose of law was the protection of individual and societal interests by coordinating them and thus minimising occasions for conflict. 

Multiple choice

Directions: The passage given below is followed by four alternative summaries. Choose the option that best captures the essence of the passage. Key in the number of the option you choose as your answer.

In the notion of consequences, the Utilitarian includes all of the good and bad produced by the act, whether arising after the act has been performed or during its performance. If the difference in the consequences of alternative acts is not great, some Utilitarians do not regard the choice between them as a moral issue. According to Mill, acts should be classified as morally right or wrong only if the consequences are of such significance that a person would wish to see the agent compelled, not merely persuaded and exhorted, to act in the preferred manner.

  1. Acts that produce consequences of no significant difference tend to have minimal moral repercussions.

  2. Mill tried to distinguish “moral” acts through the outcomes of performance or during the process of performance.

  3. An urge to force an agent to toe a particular line causes his actions to fall in the realm of moral appraisal.

  4. It is the consequences ensuing from an action that determine the moral basis of the agent.
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
C Correct answer
Explanation
  1. Not true. If two acts are identical in terms of their consequences, it cannot be said that they have no moral repercussions. The topic, here, is whether the act is morally right or wrong.
    1. True. This is what Mill did. However, the essence is not captured, as “why” and “how” are not captured by the option.
    2. True. This captures the main point of the paragraph. Whenever an agent is forced to act in a particular manner, the act needs to be evaluated from a moral standpoint.
    3. Not true. If the consequences are identical, then the moral basis need not be determined.
Multiple choice

Directions: The passage given below is followed by four alternative summaries. Choose the option that best captures the essence of the passage. Key in the number of the option you choose as your answer.

Socrates equated knowledge with virtue, which ultimately leads to ethical conduct. He believed that the only life worth living was one that was rigorously examined. He looked for principles and actions that were worth living by, creating an ethical base upon which decisions should be made. Socrates firmly believed that knowledge and understanding of virtue, or "the good," was sufficient for someone to be happy. To him, knowledge of the good was almost akin to an enlightened state. He believed that no person could willingly choose to do something harmful or negative if they were fully aware of the value of life.

  1. A well-lived life is the one that is lived by people who mean no harm.

  2. Man’s life depends on the choices he makes in life based on his levels of awareness.

  3. A sense of heightened awareness holds the key to a life of satisfaction.

  4. The road to a fulfilling life was paved by principles and actions regarded good by an individual.
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
C Correct answer
Explanation
  1. People who mean no harm to others may or may not live a life that is well–lived.
    1. The passage does not talk about levels of awareness.
    2. The passage talks about man being “fully” aware, so “heightened” awareness is the key.
    3. The principles and actions should be good and not 'regarded' good by the individual concerned. The sentence “He looked for principles and actions that were worth living by…” meant that these principles were universal and not individualised.
Multiple choice

______ and ______ are moral virtues that represent means, the former a mean between the vices of cowardliness and foolhardiness in our attitude toward things terrifying, the latter between licentiousness and insensibility in our attitude toward bodily pleasure.

  1. Consternation; lascivious

  2. Audacity; insouciance

  3. Courage; temperance

  4. Pugnacity; stoicism

Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
C Correct answer
Explanation

The clause beginning with “former” provides clue for the first blank and beginning with “latter” for the second blank. The blanks would be replaced by words that characterize the mean of the two qualities respectively. “Cowardliness” and “foolhardiness” (bold or daring in a foolish way) are the attributes of courage (terrifying things also provides the clue); and the mean of “licentiousness” (morally unrestrained, esp. in sexually activity) and “insensibility” (indifference) would be “temperance” (moderation). Hence, (3) is the answer.

Multiple choice

With reference to 'Utilitarianism', which of the following statements are correct?

  1. Jeremy Bentham gave the first systematic account of 'Utilitarianism'.
  2. The first systematic account of 'Utilitarianism' was in introduction to the principles of morals and legislation.
  3. 'Utilitarianism' proposes that human actions should aim at promoting the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people.
  4. 'Utilitarianism' as an ethical rule of conduct applies to individual moral agents only.

  1. (1) and (2) only

  2. (1) and (3) only

  3. (1), (2) and (3) only

  4. (1), (2) and (4) only

  5. (2), (3) and (4) only
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
C Correct answer
Explanation

Jeremy Bentham gave the first systematic account of Utilitarianism in introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. 'Utilitarianism' proposes that human actions should aim at promoting the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism answers that the moral agent has to choose that one which maximises the pleasure and minimises the pain. The right action for an individual to perform on any occasion is that which will produce the greatest pleasure and the least pain to those affected by it. Utilitarianism as an ethical rule of conduct applies to individual moral agents, institutions and governments.

Multiple choice

According to Socrates' view on 'Moral Intellectualism', which of the following statements is/are incorrect?

  1. Socrates holds the view that one knowingly does what is bad.
  2. Only knowledge is needed to make all men virtuous.
  3. If people desire bad things or act wrongly, it is due to their ignorance.

  1. (1) only

  2. (2) only

  3. (3) only

  4. (1) and (2) only

  5. (2) and (3) only
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
A Correct answer
Explanation

Socrates holds the view that no one knowingly does what is bad. This view is known as 'Moral Intellectualism'. It means that only knowledge is needed to make all men virtuous. Socrates thinks that men desire what is virtuous for them. If they desire bad things or act wrongly, it is due to their ignorance.

Multiple choice

With reference to 'Utilitarianism', which of the following statements is/are incorrect?

  1. Utilitarianism regards happiness as the guide for human actions.

  2. Individuals and institutions of governments should try to maximise happiness and minimise pain.

  3. A good life is one which aims at achieving the maximum happiness for oneself and others.

  4. Utilitarianism is egoism.

  5. Utilitarianism distinguished between 'act' Utilitarianism and 'rule' Utilitarianism.
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
D Correct answer
Explanation

Utilitarianism does not imply or endorse an egotistical attitude to life. It does not give any special status to the pleasure or happiness of the individual whose actions it is to guide. Egoism or self centeredness is an attitude by which an individual gives a privileged status to his own welfare. As opposed to this, Utilitarians treat everyone's welfare as equal. Hence, Utilitarianism is not an egotistical doctrine.

Multiple choice

With reference to Socrates, ethical virtues consist in the subordination of human passions and appetites to reason. However, a person may be overwhelmed by his emotions and take the unethical route. Which of the following sayings sums up this situation?

  1. Virtue renders virtue is easy.

  2. The unexamined life is not worth living.

  3. For if death is, we are not; if we are, death is not.

  4. Knowledge is virtue.

  5. The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
E Correct answer
Explanation

Socrates holds that no one knowingly does what is bad. Socratic view that knowledge of morals is sufficient to make a man virtuous. A man may reason correctly and discover the correct moral course. However, he may be overwhelmed by his emotions and take the unethical moral course. The saying, "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" sums up this situation.

Multiple choice

When we reflect on the structure of moral decisions, we come across cases in which we seem to be subject to mutually exclusive moral demands. But the conflict is just that, a seeming one. We must be careful to distinguish two levels of moral thinking: The prima facie and the critical. A prima facie moral principle is analogous to a workaday tool, say a(n)(6). It is versatile, that is, useful in many situations, and at your fingertips, while, no special skill is needed to use it. Unfortunately, the value of a prima facie principle derives from its non-specific language, which means that in some situations it will turn out to be an oversimplification. For example, two fairly straightforward moral rules such as keep all promises and assist others in dire need, which work well enough in most cases, seem to clash in the following scenario: I have promised a-friend I will run a very important errand on his behalf (and he is relying on me); but while en route I happen across a person in need of emergency medical assistance, which I can provide, but only at the cost of leaving my original purpose unaccomplished. The appearance of conflict arises from the choice of tools used in analyzing the situation the two prima facie rules do not cut finely enough. What is wanted, therefore, is a more refined analysis which will be applicable to the specific situation. At this, the second level of moral thinking, critical moral thinking employs a finer system of categories so that the end result is_(7)_.

  1. surgical scalpel

  2. kitchen knife

  3. electrical generator

  4. tuning fork

  5. library book
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
B Correct answer
Explanation

This is essentially an analogy question. In this question, we are looking for the tool that is most analogous to a rule-of-thumb moral principle. Our task is made easier by the string of adjectives that follows the blank. We need a tool that is useful in many situations, which rules out a tuning fork (4) and an electrical generator (3), both of which have highly specialized functions. Moreover, we need a tool that requires no special training, so we can eliminate answer (1). Finally, although a library book requires no special training, it has only one use - to be read. Though the knowledge it contains may be generally useful, the book itself has only one use.

Multiple choice

When we reflect on the structure of moral decisions, we come across cases in which we seem to be subject to mutually exclusive moral demands. But the conflict is just that, a seeming one. We must be careful to distinguish two levels of moral thinking: The prima facie and the critical. A prima facie moral principle is analogous to a workaday tool, say a(n)(6). It is versatile, that is, useful in many situations, and at your fingertips, while, no special skill is needed to use it. Unfortunately, the value of a prima facie principle derives from its non-specific language, which means that in some situations it will turn out to be an oversimplification. For example, two fairly straightforward moral rules such as keep all promises and assist others in dire need, which work well enough in most cases, seem to clash in the following scenario: I have promised a-friend I will run a very important errand on his behalf (and he is relying on me); but while en route I happen across a person in need of emergency medical assistance, which I can provide, but only at the cost of leaving my original purpose unaccomplished. The appearance of conflict arises from the choice of tools used in analyzing the situation the two prima facie rules do not cut finely enough. What is wanted, therefore, is a more refined analysis which will be applicable to the specific situation. At this, the second level of moral thinking, critical moral thinking employs a finer system of categories so that the end result is_(7)_.

  1. not two conflicting moral judgments, but a single consistent moral judgment

  2. an advance for the human species over the savagery of our forebears

  3. the improvement of medical care for the population in general

  4. moral principles of higher levels of abstraction which are applicable to larger numbers of cases

  5. that value judgments will no longer depend on the particulars of any given situation
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
A Correct answer
Explanation

(1) The point of the passage is that a moral decision sometimes seems difficult because we are using moral principles which are too general. They work most of the time, but sometimes they are too abstract, and as a result, two or more of them give contradictory results.

Multiple choice

The individual and social commitment of an autonomous personality which is inner-directed, subjectively controlled and which steers itself with reflexive principles, is an example of which of the following?

  1. Ethics of collective meanings

  2. Ethics of individual responsibility

  3. Magico-astrological pragmatism

  4. National-legal normative considerations

Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
B Correct answer
Explanation

An autonomous personality that is inner-directed and subjectively controlled represents the ethics of individual responsibility, where moral choices arise from self-reflection rather than external pressures or collective norms. This contrasts with ethics based on collective meanings, magical beliefs, or state-imposed legal frameworks.

Multiple choice

The concept of common-good can be all except _______________.

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage.

There are, in essence, three schools of thought on the nature of the good: the intrinsic, the subjective, and the objective. The intrinsic theory holds that the good is inherent in certain things or actions as such, regardless of their context and consequences, regardless of any benefit or injury they may cause to the actors and subjects involved. It is a theory that divorces the concept of “good” from beneficiaries, and the concept of “value” from valuer and purpose – claiming that the good is good in, by, and of itself.

The subjective theory holds that the good bears no relation to the facts of reality, that it is the product of a man’s consciousness, created by his feelings, desires, “intuitions,” or whims, and that it is merely an “arbitrary postulate” or an “emotional commitment.”

The intrinsic theory holds that the good resides in some sort of reality, independent of man’s consciousness whereas the subjectivist theory holds that the good resides in man’s consciousness, independent of reality.

The objective theory holds that the good is neither an attribute of “things in themselves” nor of man’s emotional states, but an evaluation of the facts of reality by man’s consciousness according to a rational standard of value. (Rational, in this context, means: derived from the facts of reality and validated by a process of reason.) The objective theory holds that the good is an aspect of reality in relations to man – and that it must be discovered, not invented, by man. Fundamental to an objective theory of values is the question: Of value to whom and for what? An objective theory does not permit context-dropping or “concept-stealing”; it does not permit the separation of “value” from “purpose,” of the good from beneficiaries, and of man’s actions from reason.

  1. morally unifying

  2. generally considered to be superior to the individual good

  3. where majority represents commonality

  4. where common-good can lead to tyranny - due to difference in perceptions of good

  5. it is obsolete on its own - only human beings give it a sembelance of authenticity
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
B Correct answer
Explanation

(2) is the right choice and it can be derived from the general definition of 'common good' which is the collective benefit of a particular group and it is always placed above the individual benefits.

Multiple choice

The concept of common good is all-encompassing according to ______________________.

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage.

There are, in essence, three schools of thought on the nature of the good: the intrinsic, the subjective, and the objective. The intrinsic theory holds that the good is inherent in certain things or actions as such, regardless of their context and consequences, regardless of any benefit or injury they may cause to the actors and subjects involved. It is a theory that divorces the concept of “good” from beneficiaries, and the concept of “value” from valuer and purpose – claiming that the good is good in, by, and of itself.

The subjective theory holds that the good bears no relation to the facts of reality, that it is the product of a man’s consciousness, created by his feelings, desires, “intuitions,” or whims, and that it is merely an “arbitrary postulate” or an “emotional commitment.”

The intrinsic theory holds that the good resides in some sort of reality, independent of man’s consciousness whereas the subjectivist theory holds that the good resides in man’s consciousness, independent of reality.

The objective theory holds that the good is neither an attribute of “things in themselves” nor of man’s emotional states, but an evaluation of the facts of reality by man’s consciousness according to a rational standard of value. (Rational, in this context, means: derived from the facts of reality and validated by a process of reason.) The objective theory holds that the good is an aspect of reality in relations to man – and that it must be discovered, not invented, by man. Fundamental to an objective theory of values is the question: Of value to whom and for what? An objective theory does not permit context-dropping or “concept-stealing”; it does not permit the separation of “value” from “purpose,” of the good from beneficiaries, and of man’s actions from reason.

  1. intrinsic truth

  2. subjective truth

  3. objective truth

  4. intrinsic and subjective truth

  5. none of the above
Reveal answer Fill a bubble to check yourself
A Correct answer
Explanation

(1) is the right choice as the passage postulates that intrinsic truth believes in a permanence of truth in certain concepts regardless of their individual effects. That is what common good state that whole is more important than the part.