Tag: cell biology and biotechnology

Amino acids are amphoteric compounds having a carboxylic group, amino group, hydrogen and a substituent group bonded to same carbon atom called the $\alpha$-carbon atom. The substituent group may be having one or more carboxylic groups or amino groups. In case the substituent group is having an extra amino group, the amino acid will be having more than one amino groups and will be positively charged at neutral pH and will be a basic amino acid like lysine and arginine.

Enzymes, vitamins and hormones are critical to the central role of these elements in the metabolism. Some enzymes in addition to the proteinaceous part require an additional organic molecule coenzyme. Most of the coenzymes are derived from vitamins. Hormones are chemically a diverse group. They may be amines or steroids or peptides. The hormones regulate body metabolism over a longer duration and slowly effect the developmental changes during the development of an organism. The main difference between the enzyme (coenzyme) and hormones is the time scale of their operation. Both are similar in their role in regulating body metabolism.

Antibodies are the structures that help in maintaining the immunity of the body towards the antigens that are infectious agent whether be it bacteria or viruses.

Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but have a different arrangement of the atoms in space. That excludes any different arrangements which are simply due to the molecule rotating as a whole or rotating about particular bonds. For example, in respiration, 3PGA and 2PGA, PGAL and DHAP, Glucose and Fructose. 

Lecithin is a phosphorylated glyceride. It is a phospholipid with glycerol, fatty acids ,a phosphate group and choline. It is found in the cell membrane. Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbon atoms. Adenylic acid is also called as Adenosine monophosphate (AMP). It is an adenosine with a phosphate group and the ribose sugar. It is an ester of phosphoric acid and the adenosine. Alanine is a neutral amino acid. It contains one amino group and one carboxylic group.

The composition of the different organic compounds in the animal body in terms of dry weight is as protein-71%, lipid-12%, nucleic acid-7%,  carbohydrate-5% and inorganic and other materials-5%. These four classes of organic material are important and form the basis of organic constituents in the cell. All these macromolecules except lipids are formed by the process of polymerisation. Due to their large size and complex 3-dimensional shape, these organic biomolecules function as structural components, enzymes, energy sources,molecular messengers, nutrient stores and sources of genetic information. Carbohydrates are polyhyroxyaldehydes or polyhyroxyketones or substances that gives this on hydrolysis. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Pentoses and hexoses are the most important sugars. Complex polysaccharides are important components of inter-cellular ground substances. Lipids are major and essential components of biological membranes. They are important dietery components and forms major forms of energy, because of their high calorific value. Protein is a polymer of different amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins can be fibrous or globular. Structural proteins serve as building materials for cells and tissues. Functional proteins regulate metabolism. Nucleotides, the monomer units of nucleic acids serve many important functions in cells. They store the genetic information in them. They are also primary carriers of chemical energy in cells, structural components of many enzyme cofactors and cellular second messengers. Thus, the four macromolecules play a significant role in performing various cellular functions.

A number of purine bases containing methyl substituents occur in plants and plant products and many of them have pharmacological properties. For example Theophylline is chemically 1,3-dimethylxanthine. It is found in tea. Theobromine occurs in cocoa. It is chemically 3,7-dimethylxanthine. Caffeine is present in coffee. It is chemically 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine. 

Scopolamine is an anticholinergic medicine. Scopolamine has many effects in the body including decreasing the secretion of fluids, slowing the stomach and intestines, and dilation of the pupils. Scopolamine is used to relieve nausea, vomiting, and dizziness associated with motion sickness and recovery from anesthesia and surgery. Scopolamine may also be used in the treatment of parkinsonism, spastic muscle states, irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis and other conditions. Scopolamine is also called as hyoscine. It is alkaloid drug obtained from a number of plants of the family Solenaceae, including nightshade (Atropa belladona), henbane and jimsonweed. 

Biotechnology has a long history of use in food production and processing. For ten thousand years fermentation, a form of biotechnology, has been used to produce wine, beer and bread. Selective breeding of essential foods such as rice, corn and wheat have created thousands of local varieties with improved yield compared to their wild ancestors.