Social Inequality and Policy

In India, rural incomes are generally lower than urban incomes. Which of the following reasons account for this?

1. A large number of farmers are illiterate and know little about scientific agriculture.
2. Prices of primary products are lower than those of manufactured products.
3. Investment in agriculture has been low as compared to investment in industry.

Regional disparities in India are high and have been rising in recent years because:

1. There is persistent investment over time only in select locates.
2. Some areas are agro-climatically less conducive to development.
3. Some areas continue to face little or no agrarian transformation and the consequent lack of social and economic opportunities.
4. Some areas have faced continuous political instability.

If the second hypothesis mentioned by the author (line 59 - 65) is correct, a general lessening of the discrimination against women should lead to

Directions: The question
is based on the following reading passage. Choose
the best answer to the question on the basis of what
is stated or implied in the passage.

           The existence of both racial and sexual
           discrimination in employment is well
            documented, are policy makers and
            responsible employers are particularly
(5)        sensitive to the plight of the black female
            employee on the theory that she is doubly
            the victim of discrimination. That there exist
            difference in income between whites and
            blacks is clear, but it is not so clear that
(10)      these difference are solely the result of
            racial discrimination in employment. The
            two groups differ in productivity, so basis
            economics dictates that their incomes will
            differ.
(15)      To obtain a true measure of the effect of
            racial discrimination in employment it is
            necessary to adjust the gross black/white
            income ratio for these productivity factors.
            White women in urban areas have a higher
(20)      educational level than black women and can
            be expected to receive larger incomes.
            More-over, state distribution of residence
            is important because blacks are over-
            represented in the South where wage rates
(25)      are typically lower than elsewhere and where
            racial differentials in income are greater. Also,
            blacks are over-represented in large cities;
            incomes of blacks would be greater if blacks
            were distributed among cities of different sizes
(30)      in the same manner as whites.
            After standardization for these productivity
            factors, the income of black urban women is
            estimated to be between 108 and 125 percent
            of the income of white women. This indicates
(35)      that productivity factors more than account for
            the actual white/black income differential for
            women. Despite their greater education, white
            women's actual median income is only 2 to 5
            percent higher than that of black women in the
(40)      North. Unlike the situation of men, the evidence
            indicates that the money income of black urban
            women was as great as, or greater than, that of
            whites of similar productivity in the North, and
            probably in the United States as a whole. For
(45)       men, however, the adjusted black/white
            income ratio is approximately 80 percent.
            At least two possible hypotheses may
            explain why the adjustment for productivity
            more than accounts for the observed
(50)       income differential for women, whereas the
            income differential persists for men. First,
            there may be more discrimination against
            black men than against black women. The
            different occupational structures for men
(55)      and women give some indication why this
            could be the case, and institutionalized
            considerations – for example, the effect
            of unionization in cutting competition – may
            also contribute. Second, the data are
(60)      consistent with the hypothesis that the
            intensity of discrimination against women
            differs little between whites and black.
            Therefore, racial discrimination adds little
            to the effects of existing sex
(65)      discrimination. These findings suggest
            that a black woman does not necessarily
            suffer relatively more discrimination in the
            labor market than does a white woman.
            Rather, for women, the effects of sexual
(70)      discrimination are so pervasive that the
            effects of racial discrimination are negligible.
            Of course, this is not to say that the more
            generalized racial discrimination of which
            black women, like black men, are victims
(75)      does not disadvantage black women in their
            search for work. After all, one important
            productivity factor is level of education, and
            the difference between white and black
            women on this scale is largely the result of
(80)      racial discrimination.

According to the passage, the gross/white income ratio is not an accurate measure of discrimination in employment because the gross ratio

Directions: The question
is based on the following reading passage. Choose
the best answer to the question on the basis of what
is stated or implied in the passage.

           The existence of both racial and sexual
           discrimination in employment is well
            documented, are policy makers and
            responsible employers are particularly
(5)        sensitive to the plight of the black female
            employee on the theory that she is doubly
            the victim of discrimination. That there exist
            difference in income between whites and
            blacks is clear, but it is not so clear that
(10)      these difference are solely the result of
            racial discrimination in employment. The
            two groups differ in productivity, so basis
            economics dictates that their incomes will
            differ.
(15)      To obtain a true measure of the effect of
            racial discrimination in employment it is
            necessary to adjust the gross black/white
            income ratio for these productivity factors.
            White women in urban areas have a higher
(20)      educational level than black women and can
            be expected to receive larger incomes.
            More-over, state distribution of residence
            is important because blacks are over-
            represented in the South where wage rates
(25)      are typically lower than elsewhere and where
            racial differentials in income are greater. Also,
            blacks are over-represented in large cities;
            incomes of blacks would be greater if blacks
            were distributed among cities of different sizes
(30)      in the same manner as whites.
            After standardization for these productivity
            factors, the income of black urban women is
            estimated to be between 108 and 125 percent
            of the income of white women. This indicates
(35)      that productivity factors more than account for
            the actual white/black income differential for
            women. Despite their greater education, white
            women's actual median income is only 2 to 5
            percent higher than that of black women in the
(40)      North. Unlike the situation of men, the evidence
            indicates that the money income of black urban
            women was as great as, or greater than, that of
            whites of similar productivity in the North, and
            probably in the United States as a whole. For
(45)       men, however, the adjusted black/white
            income ratio is approximately 80 percent.
            At least two possible hypotheses may
            explain why the adjustment for productivity
            more than accounts for the observed
(50)       income differential for women, whereas the
            income differential persists for men. First,
            there may be more discrimination against
            black men than against black women. The
            different occupational structures for men
(55)      and women give some indication why this
            could be the case, and institutionalized
            considerations – for example, the effect
            of unionization in cutting competition – may
            also contribute. Second, the data are
(60)      consistent with the hypothesis that the
            intensity of discrimination against women
            differs little between whites and black.
            Therefore, racial discrimination adds little
            to the effects of existing sex
(65)      discrimination. These findings suggest
            that a black woman does not necessarily
            suffer relatively more discrimination in the
            labor market than does a white woman.
            Rather, for women, the effects of sexual
(70)      discrimination are so pervasive that the
            effects of racial discrimination are negligible.
            Of course, this is not to say that the more
            generalized racial discrimination of which
            black women, like black men, are victims
(75)      does not disadvantage black women in their
            search for work. After all, one important
            productivity factor is level of education, and
            the difference between white and black
            women on this scale is largely the result of
(80)      racial discrimination.

What is the desired probable impact of the formulation of specific poverty alleviation programmes?

Directions: Read the passage below and answer the question that follows:

Alleviation of rural poverty has been one of the primary objectives of planned development in India. Ever since the inception of planning, the policies and the programmes have been designed and redesigned with this aim.  The problem of rural poverty was brought into a sharper focus during the Sixth Plan. The Seventh Plan too emphasised growth with social justice. It was realised that a sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation has to be based on inversing the productive employment opportunities in the process of growth itself. However, to the extent the process of growth bypasses some sections of the population, it is necessary to formulate specific poverty alleviation programmes for generation of a certain minimum level of income for the rural poor.

Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation.  Increased participation of people in the rural development process, decentralisation of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and greater access to credit and inputs go a long way in providing the rural people with better prospects of economic development. Improvements in health, education, drinking water, energy supply sanitation and housing couple with attitudinal changes also facilitate their social development.

Rural poverty is inextricably linked with low rural productivity and unemployment, including underemployment.  Hence, it is imperative to improve productivity and increase employment in rural areas. Moreover, more employment needs to be generated at higher levels of productivity in order to generate higher output.  Employment at miserably low levels of productivity and incomes is already a problem of far greater magnitude than unemployment as such.  It was around 5 percent.  As per the currently used methodology in the Planning Commission, poverty for the same year was estimated to be 30 percent.  This demonstrates that even though a large proportion of the rural population was ‘working’ it was difficult for them to eke out a living even at subsistence levels from it. It is true that there has been a considerable decline in the incidence of rural poverty over time.  In terms of absolute numbers of poor, the decline has been much less. While this can be attributed to the demographic factor, the fact remains that after 40 years of planned development about 200 million are still poor in rural India.

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as an important factor for rural development?

Directions: Read the passage below and answer the question that follows:

Alleviation of rural poverty has been one of the primary objectives of planned development in India. Ever since the inception of planning, the policies and the programmes have been designed and redesigned with this aim.  The problem of rural poverty was brought into a sharper focus during the Sixth Plan. The Seventh Plan too emphasised growth with social justice. It was realised that a sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation has to be based on inversing the productive employment opportunities in the process of growth itself. However, to the extent the process of growth bypasses some sections of the population, it is necessary to formulate specific poverty alleviation programmes for generation of a certain minimum level of income for the rural poor.

Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation.  Increased participation of people in the rural development process, decentralisation of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and greater access to credit and inputs go a long way in providing the rural people with better prospects of economic development. Improvements in health, education, drinking water, energy supply sanitation and housing couple with attitudinal changes also facilitate their social development.

Rural poverty is inextricably linked with low rural productivity and unemployment, including underemployment.  Hence, it is imperative to improve productivity and increase employment in rural areas. Moreover, more employment needs to be generated at higher levels of productivity in order to generate higher output.  Employment at miserably low levels of productivity and incomes is already a problem of far greater magnitude than unemployment as such.  It was around 5 percent.  As per the currently used methodology in the Planning Commission, poverty for the same year was estimated to be 30 percent.  This demonstrates that even though a large proportion of the rural population was ‘working’ it was difficult for them to eke out a living even at subsistence levels from it. It is true that there has been a considerable decline in the incidence of rural poverty over time.  In terms of absolute numbers of poor, the decline has been much less. While this can be attributed to the demographic factor, the fact remains that after 40 years of planned development about 200 million are still poor in rural India.