Reading Comprehension

Which of the following statements best conveys the theme of the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
We truly live in an age of abundance. Everything from our wardrobes, to our homes, to the stores selling all kinds of stuff - every place is overflowing with stuff we have managed to acquire or aspire to own and it is a corroboration of a truly consumerist era. We know what we want and we want it now. Everyone has wants that need to be fulfilled and envy - the Green eyed monster has transmuted into Shrek - the lovable ogre - with the world now not only coming to terms with, but also embracing with gusto, a culture of material ambition. Keeping up with the Joneses is out and ‘Have it, flaunt it’ is the new style statement.
Advertisers, through every platform available, television, newspaper, radio, internet and sundry other means, are encouraging us to go out and buy the latest model, the latest product or the latest service. With manufacturers churning out newer models every few months and consumers lapping them up, it would seem that perfectly good working products would be consigned to the waste basket but that is not the case. The market for second hand products is burgeoning, except for the fact that they are now no longer called second hand but ‘used products’. Without offending the sensibilities or the ego of someone who doesn’t have enough spare money to buy the latest, state of the art model, the altered name means he can now buy and flash a product which till yesterday was haute but has suddenly lost value and favor after the coming of its latest avatar.

Why, according to the author, envy is not bad anymore?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
We truly live in an age of abundance. Everything from our wardrobes, to our homes, to the stores selling all kinds of stuff - every place is overflowing with stuff we have managed to acquire or aspire to own and it is a corroboration of a truly consumerist era. We know what we want and we want it now. Everyone has wants that need to be fulfilled and envy - the Green eyed monster has transmuted into Shrek - the lovable ogre - with the world now not only coming to terms with, but also embracing with gusto, a culture of material ambition. Keeping up with the Joneses is out and ‘Have it, flaunt it’ is the new style statement.
Advertisers, through every platform available, television, newspaper, radio, internet and sundry other means, are encouraging us to go out and buy the latest model, the latest product or the latest service. With manufacturers churning out newer models every few months and consumers lapping them up, it would seem that perfectly good working products would be consigned to the waste basket but that is not the case. The market for second hand products is burgeoning, except for the fact that they are now no longer called second hand but ‘used products’. Without offending the sensibilities or the ego of someone who doesn’t have enough spare money to buy the latest, state of the art model, the altered name means he can now buy and flash a product which till yesterday was haute but has suddenly lost value and favor after the coming of its latest avatar.

The author uses the example of “the potter's wheel” to

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
As to machinery, Marx and his followers, maintain that it represents nothing but the average labor of the past; and so long as it exists only in its smaller and simpler forms, the devising and constructing of which are not referable to any faculties which we are able to distinguish from those of the average laborer, we have further seen that the theory of Marx holds good. Labor produces alike both the finished goods and its implements. But in proportion as machines or other contrivances, such as vessels, grow in size or complexity, and embody, as they do in their more modern developments, ingenuity of the highest and knowledge of the most abstruse kinds, the situation changes; and we are able to identify certain faculties as essential to the ultimate result, which affect the work of the laborers, but which do not emanate from themselves. Any three men of average strength and intelligence might make a potter's wheel together, or build a small boat together, as they frequently do now, their several tasks being interchangeable, or assigned to each of them by easy mutual agreement. The business of directing labor has not separated itself from the actual business of laboring. Each man knows the object of what he does, and can co-ordinate that object with the object of what is done by his fellows. But when the ultimate result is something so vast and complicated that a thousand men instead of three have to co-operate in the production of it, when a million pieces of metal, some large and some minute, have to be cast, filed, turned, rolled, or bent, so that finally they may all coalesce into a single mechanical organism, no one laborer sees further than the task which he performs himself. He cannot adjust his work to that of another man, who is probably working a quarter of a mile away from him, and he has in most cases no idea whatever of how the two pieces of work are related to each other. Each laborer has simply to perform his work in accordance with directions which emanate from some mind other than his own, and the whole practical value of what the laborers do depends on the quality of the directions which are thus given to each.
In other words, in proportion as the industrial process is enhanced in productivity by the concentration on it of the higher faculties of mankind, there is an increasing fission of this process as a whole into two kinds of activity represented by two different groups. We have no longer merely although we have this still an increasing division of labor; but we have the laborers of all kinds and grades separating themselves into one group on the one hand, and the men who direct their labor, as a separate group, on the other hand.

Which of the following takes place when machines embody knowledge in its higher forms? I. A worker feels disconnected from his work. II. A worker usually fails to grasp the concept in totality. III. Division between the act of labor and direction of labor takes place.

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
As to machinery, Marx and his followers, maintain that it represents nothing but the average labor of the past; and so long as it exists only in its smaller and simpler forms, the devising and constructing of which are not referable to any faculties which we are able to distinguish from those of the average laborer, we have further seen that the theory of Marx holds good. Labor produces alike both the finished goods and its implements. But in proportion as machines or other contrivances, such as vessels, grow in size or complexity, and embody, as they do in their more modern developments, ingenuity of the highest and knowledge of the most abstruse kinds, the situation changes; and we are able to identify certain faculties as essential to the ultimate result, which affect the work of the laborers, but which do not emanate from themselves. Any three men of average strength and intelligence might make a potter's wheel together, or build a small boat together, as they frequently do now, their several tasks being interchangeable, or assigned to each of them by easy mutual agreement. The business of directing labor has not separated itself from the actual business of laboring. Each man knows the object of what he does, and can co-ordinate that object with the object of what is done by his fellows. But when the ultimate result is something so vast and complicated that a thousand men instead of three have to co-operate in the production of it, when a million pieces of metal, some large and some minute, have to be cast, filed, turned, rolled, or bent, so that finally they may all coalesce into a single mechanical organism, no one laborer sees further than the task which he performs himself. He cannot adjust his work to that of another man, who is probably working a quarter of a mile away from him, and he has in most cases no idea whatever of how the two pieces of work are related to each other. Each laborer has simply to perform his work in accordance with directions which emanate from some mind other than his own, and the whole practical value of what the laborers do depends on the quality of the directions which are thus given to each.
In other words, in proportion as the industrial process is enhanced in productivity by the concentration on it of the higher faculties of mankind, there is an increasing fission of this process as a whole into two kinds of activity represented by two different groups. We have no longer merely although we have this still an increasing division of labor; but we have the laborers of all kinds and grades separating themselves into one group on the one hand, and the men who direct their labor, as a separate group, on the other hand.

What is the tone of the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
As to machinery, Marx and his followers, maintain that it represents nothing but the average labor of the past; and so long as it exists only in its smaller and simpler forms, the devising and constructing of which are not referable to any faculties which we are able to distinguish from those of the average laborer, we have further seen that the theory of Marx holds good. Labor produces alike both the finished goods and its implements. But in proportion as machines or other contrivances, such as vessels, grow in size or complexity, and embody, as they do in their more modern developments, ingenuity of the highest and knowledge of the most abstruse kinds, the situation changes; and we are able to identify certain faculties as essential to the ultimate result, which affect the work of the laborers, but which do not emanate from themselves. Any three men of average strength and intelligence might make a potter's wheel together, or build a small boat together, as they frequently do now, their several tasks being interchangeable, or assigned to each of them by easy mutual agreement. The business of directing labor has not separated itself from the actual business of laboring. Each man knows the object of what he does, and can co-ordinate that object with the object of what is done by his fellows. But when the ultimate result is something so vast and complicated that a thousand men instead of three have to co-operate in the production of it, when a million pieces of metal, some large and some minute, have to be cast, filed, turned, rolled, or bent, so that finally they may all coalesce into a single mechanical organism, no one laborer sees further than the task which he performs himself. He cannot adjust his work to that of another man, who is probably working a quarter of a mile away from him, and he has in most cases no idea whatever of how the two pieces of work are related to each other. Each laborer has simply to perform his work in accordance with directions which emanate from some mind other than his own, and the whole practical value of what the laborers do depends on the quality of the directions which are thus given to each.
In other words, in proportion as the industrial process is enhanced in productivity by the concentration on it of the higher faculties of mankind, there is an increasing fission of this process as a whole into two kinds of activity represented by two different groups. We have no longer merely although we have this still an increasing division of labor; but we have the laborers of all kinds and grades separating themselves into one group on the one hand, and the men who direct their labor, as a separate group, on the other hand.

The author is likely to agree with all of the following, except

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
The qualities and defects of French painting are explained less by its historic origin than by the character of the French genius itself. French painting really began in connoisseurship, one may say. It arose in appreciation, that faculty in which the French have always been, and still are, unrivalled. Its syntheses were based on elements already in combination. It originated nothing. It was eclectic at the outset. Compared with the slow and suave evolution of Italian art, in whose earliest dawn its borrowed Byzantine painting served as a stimulus and suggestion to original views of natural material rather than as a model for imitation and modification, the painting that sprang into existence, Minerva-like, in full armor, at Fontainebleau under Francis I, was of the essence of artificiality. It was very much in the position in which American appreciation finds itself to-day. Like our own painters, the French artists of the Renaissance found themselves familiar with masterpieces wholly beyond their power to create, and produced by a foreign people who had enjoyed the incomparable advantage of arriving at their artistic apogee through natural stages of growth, beginning with impulse and culminating in expertness.

Why does the French art not showcase modernity?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
More than that of any other of modern people, French art is a national expression. It epitomizes very definitely the national esthetic judgment and feeling, and its manifestations share a certain character that is very salient. Of almost any French picture or statue of any modern epoch one's first thought is that it is French. In the field of the fine arts, as in many others, the results are evident of an intellectual co-operation which insures the development of a common standard and tends to subordinate idiosyncrasy. The fine arts, as well as every other department of mental activity, reveal the effect of that intellectual as distinguished from the sensuous instinct which is so much more powerful in France than it is anywhere else. I think, one does feel the absence of imagination, opportunity, of spirituality, of poetry in a word. The French themselves feel something of this. At the Great Exposition of 1889 no pictures were so much admired by them as the English, in which appeared, even to an excessive degree, just the qualities in which French art is lacking.
Some French critics, far from denying this preference of French art, express pride in it, and, indeed, defend it. The French rooms, at least until modern periods are reached, are a demonstration that in the sphere of esthetics, science does not produce the greatest artists  — that something other than intelligent interest and technical accomplishment are requisite to that end, and that system is fatal to spontaneity. The French classical painters show little absorption, little delight in their subject. They are too cultivated to invent. Selection has taken the place of discovery in their inspiration. They are addicted to the rational and the regulated. Their substance is never sentimental and incommunicable. Their works have a distinctly professional air. Everywhere is the air of reserve, of intellectual good-breeding, of avoidance of extravagance. That French painting is at the head of contemporary painting, as far and away incontestably it is, is due to the fact that it alone has kept alive the traditions of art which, elsewhere than in France, have given place to other and more material ideals. From the first its practitioners have been artists rather than poets, have possessed, that is to say, the organizing rather than the imaginative temperament, but they have rarely been perfunctory and never common.
And one quality is always present: elegance; it is always evidently aimed at and measurably achieved. A refined and cultivated sense of what is sound, estimable, competent, reserved, satisfactory, up to the mark, and above all, elegant and distinguished — has been at once the arbiter and the stimulus of excellence in French painting. It is this which has made the France of the past three centuries, and especially the France of to-day.

Which of the following is/are true as per the passage? I. The allure of an objective acts as a prod for its achievement. II. A difference in opinion can impact the productivity of an enterprise. III. Distribution of wealth and its production are closely interlinked.

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
Now, whatever may be the value of such teaching as a contribution to economic science, it illustrates by its success one cardinal truth, and by implication it bears witness to another. The first truth is that, no matter how desirable any object may be which is obtruded on the imagination of anybody, nobody will bestir himself in a practical way to demand it until he can be persuaded to believe that its attainment is practically possible. The other is this: that the possibilities of redistributing wealth depend on the causes by which wealth is produced. All wealth, says Marx, can practically be appropriated by the laborers. But why? Because the laborers themselves comprise in their own labor all the forces that produce it. If its production necessitated the activity of any persons other than themselves, these other persons would inevitably have some control over its distribution; since if it were distributed in a manner of which these other persons disapproved, it would be open to them to refuse to take part in its production any longer; and there would, in consequence, be no wealth, or less wealth, to distribute.
Let us, then, examine the precise sense and manner in which this theory of labor as the sole producer of wealth is elaborated and defended by Marx in his Bible of Scientific Socialism. His argument, though the expression of it is very often pedantic and encumbered with superfluous mathematical formulae, is ingenious and interesting, and is associated with historical criticism which, in spite of its defects, is valuable. Marx was, indeed, foremost among those thinkers already referred to who first insisted on the fact that the economic conditions of today are mainly a novel development of others which went before them, and that, having their roots in history, they must be studied by the historical method.

The author will agree with which of the evaluations of Marx? I. Marx believed in the use of figures to clarify his stand. II. Marx believed that those indirectly linked to production cannot claim a share of the pie. III. Marx believed in interconnectivity of economic events.

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
Now, whatever may be the value of such teaching as a contribution to economic science, it illustrates by its success one cardinal truth, and by implication it bears witness to another. The first truth is that, no matter how desirable any object may be which is obtruded on the imagination of anybody, nobody will bestir himself in a practical way to demand it until he can be persuaded to believe that its attainment is practically possible. The other is this: that the possibilities of redistributing wealth depend on the causes by which wealth is produced. All wealth, says Marx, can practically be appropriated by the laborers. But why? Because the laborers themselves comprise in their own labor all the forces that produce it. If its production necessitated the activity of any persons other than themselves, these other persons would inevitably have some control over its distribution; since if it were distributed in a manner of which these other persons disapproved, it would be open to them to refuse to take part in its production any longer; and there would, in consequence, be no wealth, or less wealth, to distribute.
Let us, then, examine the precise sense and manner in which this theory of labor as the sole producer of wealth is elaborated and defended by Marx in his Bible of Scientific Socialism. His argument, though the expression of it is very often pedantic and encumbered with superfluous mathematical formulae, is ingenious and interesting, and is associated with historical criticism which, in spite of its defects, is valuable. Marx was, indeed, foremost among those thinkers already referred to who first insisted on the fact that the economic conditions of today are mainly a novel development of others which went before them, and that, having their roots in history, they must be studied by the historical method.

What has been the result of the French art being an expression of mind rather than the heart?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
More than that of any other of modern people, French art is a national expression. It epitomizes very definitely the national esthetic judgment and feeling, and its manifestations share a certain character that is very salient. Of almost any French picture or statue of any modern epoch one's first thought is that it is French. In the field of the fine arts, as in many others, the results are evident of an intellectual co-operation which insures the development of a common standard and tends to subordinate idiosyncrasy. The fine arts, as well as every other department of mental activity, reveal the effect of that intellectual as distinguished from the sensuous instinct which is so much more powerful in France than it is anywhere else. I think, one does feel the absence of imagination, opportunity, of spirituality, of poetry in a word. The French themselves feel something of this. At the Great Exposition of 1889 no pictures were so much admired by them as the English, in which appeared, even to an excessive degree, just the qualities in which French art is lacking.
Some French critics, far from denying this preference of French art, express pride in it, and, indeed, defend it. The French rooms, at least until modern periods are reached, are a demonstration that in the sphere of esthetics, science does not produce the greatest artists  — that something other than intelligent interest and technical accomplishment are requisite to that end, and that system is fatal to spontaneity. The French classical painters show little absorption, little delight in their subject. They are too cultivated to invent. Selection has taken the place of discovery in their inspiration. They are addicted to the rational and the regulated. Their substance is never sentimental and incommunicable. Their works have a distinctly professional air. Everywhere is the air of reserve, of intellectual good-breeding, of avoidance of extravagance. That French painting is at the head of contemporary painting, as far and away incontestably it is, is due to the fact that it alone has kept alive the traditions of art which, elsewhere than in France, have given place to other and more material ideals. From the first its practitioners have been artists rather than poets, have possessed, that is to say, the organizing rather than the imaginative temperament, but they have rarely been perfunctory and never common.
And one quality is always present: elegance; it is always evidently aimed at and measurably achieved. A refined and cultivated sense of what is sound, estimable, competent, reserved, satisfactory, up to the mark, and above all, elegant and distinguished — has been at once the arbiter and the stimulus of excellence in French painting. It is this which has made the France of the past three centuries, and especially the France of to-day.

What function does control serve?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
In general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a reaction, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.
This general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.
In short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need.  Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action.  Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one's having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.

What is the central idea of the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
In general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a reaction, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.
This general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.
In short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need.  Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action.  Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one's having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.

All of the following are true of French art, except

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
More than that of any other of modern people, French art is a national expression. It epitomizes very definitely the national esthetic judgment and feeling, and its manifestations share a certain character that is very salient. Of almost any French picture or statue of any modern epoch one's first thought is that it is French. In the field of the fine arts, as in many others, the results are evident of an intellectual co-operation which insures the development of a common standard and tends to subordinate idiosyncrasy. The fine arts, as well as every other department of mental activity, reveal the effect of that intellectual as distinguished from the sensuous instinct which is so much more powerful in France than it is anywhere else. I think, one does feel the absence of imagination, opportunity, of spirituality, of poetry in a word. The French themselves feel something of this. At the Great Exposition of 1889 no pictures were so much admired by them as the English, in which appeared, even to an excessive degree, just the qualities in which French art is lacking.
Some French critics, far from denying this preference of French art, express pride in it, and, indeed, defend it. The French rooms, at least until modern periods are reached, are a demonstration that in the sphere of esthetics, science does not produce the greatest artists  — that something other than intelligent interest and technical accomplishment are requisite to that end, and that system is fatal to spontaneity. The French classical painters show little absorption, little delight in their subject. They are too cultivated to invent. Selection has taken the place of discovery in their inspiration. They are addicted to the rational and the regulated. Their substance is never sentimental and incommunicable. Their works have a distinctly professional air. Everywhere is the air of reserve, of intellectual good-breeding, of avoidance of extravagance. That French painting is at the head of contemporary painting, as far and away incontestably it is, is due to the fact that it alone has kept alive the traditions of art which, elsewhere than in France, have given place to other and more material ideals. From the first its practitioners have been artists rather than poets, have possessed, that is to say, the organizing rather than the imaginative temperament, but they have rarely been perfunctory and never common.
And one quality is always present: elegance; it is always evidently aimed at and measurably achieved. A refined and cultivated sense of what is sound, estimable, competent, reserved, satisfactory, up to the mark, and above all, elegant and distinguished — has been at once the arbiter and the stimulus of excellence in French painting. It is this which has made the France of the past three centuries, and especially the France of to-day.

Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
In general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a reaction, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.
This general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.
In short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need.  Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action.  Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one's having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.

What is the organization of the passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question.
In general, every stimulus directs activity. It does not simply excite it or stir it up, but directs it toward an object. Put the other way around, a response is not just a reaction, a protest, as it were, against being disturbed; it is, as the word indicates, an answer. It meets the stimulus, and corresponds with it. A light is the stimulus to the eye to see something, and the business of the eye is to see. If the eyes are open and there is light, seeing occurs; the stimulus is but a condition of the fulfillment of the proper function of the organ, not an outside interruption. To some extent, then, all direction or control is a guiding of activity to its own end; it is an assistance in doing fully what some organ is already tending to do.
This general statement needs, however, to be qualified in two respects. In the first place, except in the case of a small number of instincts, the stimuli to which an immature human being is subject are not sufficiently definite to call out, in the beginning, specific responses. Compare the behavior of a beginner in riding a bicycle with that of the expert. There is little axis of direction in the energies put forth; they are largely dispersive and centrifugal. Direction involves a focusing and fixating of action in order that it may be truly a response, and this requires an elimination of unnecessary and confusing movements. In the second place, although no activity can be produced in which the person does not cooperate to some extent, yet a response may be of a kind which does not fit into the sequence and continuity of action. A person boxing may dodge a particular blow successfully, but in such a way as to expose himself the next instant to a still harder blow. Adequate control means that the successive acts are brought into a continuous order; each act not only meets its immediate stimulus but helps the acts which follow.
In short, direction is both simultaneous and successive. At a given time, it requires that, from all the tendencies that are partially called out, those be selected which center energy upon the point of need.  Successively, it requires that each act be balanced with those which precede and come after, so that order of activity is achieved. Focusing and ordering are thus the two aspects of direction, one spatial, the other temporal. The first insures hitting the mark; the second keeps the balance required for further action.  Obviously, it is not possible to separate them in practice as we have distinguished them in idea. Activity must be centered at a given time in such a way as to prepare for what comes next. The problem of the immediate response is complicated by one's having to be on the lookout for future occurrences.