Philosophy of Mind

Purpose of passage I is

Directions: Answer the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the twin passage.

Passage – I

There are many different approaches philosophers have taken to explain dreams and what they mean. Why do I dream? There are several answers to that question. The first in the physiological set. We dream in order to exercise our brains. When we’re awake, messages are constantly speeding among all our billions of brain cells to keep us moving and thinking and digesting and so on. So the idea is that when we’re asleep, dreams exercise the "pathways" between brains cells. A couple of ideas that might help this make sense are; the first couple of years of our life are the most intense for learning which is also when we have the greatest amount of REM sleep–which means we are dreaming a lot. Another thing is your brain waves during REM sleep look about the same as your brain waves while we are awake. During other parts of sleep, the brain waves look very different (a lot slower). There is also a psychological set of ideas about why we dream. Since psychology has to do with our thoughts and emotions it has been said dreams are actually about immediate concerns in our lives. In the bible and within a lot of cultures dreams are thought to be prophetic, which means they can predict the future. Sigmund Freud a famous psychoanalyst gave us a lot of ideas on how our minds work and was very interested in interpreting dreams. He thought dreams contained symbols hidden deep within our minds and memories

Passage – II

Why do we dream? Are they instructions from the spiritual world or just deep, hidden wishes that can be used to unlock the secrets of the unconscious mind? Nobody knows for sure. One theory that is prevalent today is that dreams result from the physiological "exercise" of the synapses of the brain. There is no proven fact on why we dream, which is why there are so many theories on the topic. There is Freud's theory that dreams carry our hidden desires and Jung’s theory that dreams carry meaning, although not always of desire, and that the dreamer can interpret these dreams. After these theories, others continued such as the Cayce theory in that dreams are our body’s means of building up of the mental, spiritual and physical well being. Finally, there was the argument between Evans' theory and the Crick and Mitchinson theory. Evans states that dreaming is our bodies way of storing the vast array of information gained during the day, whereas Crick and Mitchinson say that this information is being dumped rather than stored. Whichever theory is true, we may never know, but from these following theories we can decide for ourselves what we believe to be true and further help us into understanding our dreams. My own personal theory on why we dream is that the subconscious mind is always working. This results in dreams.

Following is the relationship between passage I and II:

Directions: Answer the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the twin passage.

Passage – I

There are many different approaches philosophers have taken to explain dreams and what they mean. Why do I dream? There are several answers to that question. The first in the physiological set. We dream in order to exercise our brains. When we’re awake, messages are constantly speeding among all our billions of brain cells to keep us moving and thinking and digesting and so on. So the idea is that when we’re asleep, dreams exercise the "pathways" between brains cells. A couple of ideas that might help this make sense are; the first couple of years of our life are the most intense for learning which is also when we have the greatest amount of REM sleep–which means we are dreaming a lot. Another thing is your brain waves during REM sleep look about the same as your brain waves while we are awake. During other parts of sleep, the brain waves look very different (a lot slower). There is also a psychological set of ideas about why we dream. Since psychology has to do with our thoughts and emotions it has been said dreams are actually about immediate concerns in our lives. In the bible and within a lot of cultures dreams are thought to be prophetic, which means they can predict the future. Sigmund Freud a famous psychoanalyst gave us a lot of ideas on how our minds work and was very interested in interpreting dreams. He thought dreams contained symbols hidden deep within our minds and memories

Passage – II

Why do we dream? Are they instructions from the spiritual world or just deep, hidden wishes that can be used to unlock the secrets of the unconscious mind? Nobody knows for sure. One theory that is prevalent today is that dreams result from the physiological "exercise" of the synapses of the brain. There is no proven fact on why we dream, which is why there are so many theories on the topic. There is Freud's theory that dreams carry our hidden desires and Jung’s theory that dreams carry meaning, although not always of desire, and that the dreamer can interpret these dreams. After these theories, others continued such as the Cayce theory in that dreams are our body’s means of building up of the mental, spiritual and physical well being. Finally, there was the argument between Evans' theory and the Crick and Mitchinson theory. Evans states that dreaming is our bodies way of storing the vast array of information gained during the day, whereas Crick and Mitchinson say that this information is being dumped rather than stored. Whichever theory is true, we may never know, but from these following theories we can decide for ourselves what we believe to be true and further help us into understanding our dreams. My own personal theory on why we dream is that the subconscious mind is always working. This results in dreams.

Primary purpose of passage II is

Directions: Answer the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the twin passage.

Passage – I

There are many different approaches philosophers have taken to explain dreams and what they mean. Why do I dream? There are several answers to that question. The first in the physiological set. We dream in order to exercise our brains. When we’re awake, messages are constantly speeding among all our billions of brain cells to keep us moving and thinking and digesting and so on. So the idea is that when we’re asleep, dreams exercise the "pathways" between brains cells. A couple of ideas that might help this make sense are; the first couple of years of our life are the most intense for learning which is also when we have the greatest amount of REM sleep–which means we are dreaming a lot. Another thing is your brain waves during REM sleep look about the same as your brain waves while we are awake. During other parts of sleep, the brain waves look very different (a lot slower). There is also a psychological set of ideas about why we dream. Since psychology has to do with our thoughts and emotions it has been said dreams are actually about immediate concerns in our lives. In the bible and within a lot of cultures dreams are thought to be prophetic, which means they can predict the future. Sigmund Freud a famous psychoanalyst gave us a lot of ideas on how our minds work and was very interested in interpreting dreams. He thought dreams contained symbols hidden deep within our minds and memories

Passage – II

Why do we dream? Are they instructions from the spiritual world or just deep, hidden wishes that can be used to unlock the secrets of the unconscious mind? Nobody knows for sure. One theory that is prevalent today is that dreams result from the physiological "exercise" of the synapses of the brain. There is no proven fact on why we dream, which is why there are so many theories on the topic. There is Freud's theory that dreams carry our hidden desires and Jung’s theory that dreams carry meaning, although not always of desire, and that the dreamer can interpret these dreams. After these theories, others continued such as the Cayce theory in that dreams are our body’s means of building up of the mental, spiritual and physical well being. Finally, there was the argument between Evans' theory and the Crick and Mitchinson theory. Evans states that dreaming is our bodies way of storing the vast array of information gained during the day, whereas Crick and Mitchinson say that this information is being dumped rather than stored. Whichever theory is true, we may never know, but from these following theories we can decide for ourselves what we believe to be true and further help us into understanding our dreams. My own personal theory on why we dream is that the subconscious mind is always working. This results in dreams.

The term 'ionization' as inferred from Passage I would most likely imply

Directions: Answer the question on the basis of what is stated or implied in the twin passage.

Passage – I

The mind has an incredible power. We see it as we go through our everyday activities, constantly displaying the wonders of logic, thought, memory and creativity. Yet, can the mind be more powerful than we know? Is it possible to reduce or even eliminate pain, illness and disease by using the natural powers it possesses? Can the mind heal?

Many of our finest researchers and scientists have explored that question, and while the exact answer still eludes us, the facts seem to bear out that the mind does have the power to assist in both healing, and conversely, bringing on "disease" as well. Two such examples of mind and body healing are hypnotherapy and meditation. There are others such as ionization, which focuses on thinking positive instead of negative. But first, I will describe the reasoning behind the mind-body connection.

Psycho-neuro-immunology is the name for the study of the min-body connection, or PNI for short. PNI has been around for the last 20 years or so and has revolutionized the way we look at health and wellness. There was a point in human existence when the connection between the mind and the body was taken for granted. A couple of centuries ago, science had grown to understand the "mechanical universe" concept. The laws of Sir Newton and the science of physics had begun to infiltrate the science of medicine. If the universe followed mechanical laws, so might the body. To prove this theory, scientists needed to open a body up to observe how it worked.

The Church was very adamant about the body being the temple of the soul and could never be desecrated. After much haggling and several smoke-filled back room discussions, an agreement was reached. The Church would maintain it’s jurisdiction over "the mind" for that is were the personality and soul "truly" resides and science could have the body, which is just a "machine for the mind" and upon death, would become simply an empty vessel.

Furthering the rift, more recent science has discovered that specific diseases can be "cured" through specific medicinal formulas or drugs. This "magic bullet" mentality spread throughout medicine and science. Science has tried to brush aside or explain away this phenomenon by saying, "Oh, it’s just the placebo effect" or "It’s spontaneous remission" as well as other innocuous terms seemingly to lessen it’s importance. It is human nature when something is not understood to either dismiss it, diminish it or ignore it all together. This search to seek out answers to this reoccurring phenomenon is the basis for PNI, the way the mind-body connection is made and how we can utilize it for greater health and well-being.

Passage – II

The brain is a two and a quarter pound piece of living organic tissue that controls the human nervous system. Music is a collection of sound waves that propagate through the air, and has varying frequencies and tones following a discernible order. Yet we all recognize the significance of the brain beyond its physical function. Our minds are the essence of what we are. The brain enigmatically stores memories, and lets people experience such things as emotion, sensations, and thoughts. In the same sense, music is more than just a collection of vibrations. This leads to the question of how does music affect the mind, and in addition, how does music affect human behavior? The reader might ask why such a question should be relevant. If more is known about the psychological and neurophysiological effects of music on the human mind, then the possibilities of this knowledge are unbounded. Music can be used to treat social and behavioral problems in people with disabilities. The use of music in the classroom might enhance or weaken a student's work characteristics. Therefore, whether the influence of music is positive or negative, much needs to be explored about the link between the mind and music.

Physiologically, the brain receives information about sound waves from the ear through the auditory nerve. This information is then processed by the brain and analyzed for the juxtaposition of melody and rhythm. The mixture of melody and rhythm is what we commonly refer to as music. However, our minds interpret this auditory information as more than just sound signals; somehow, we are able to differentiate between certain types of music, and develop preferences for these different types. Yet, what are the ways in which the effects of music manifest themselves?

First, there are particular biochemical responses in the human body to music. Research shows that college students, when listening to music, have more galvanic skin response peaks, as opposed to when they were not listening to music. This research also indicates a significant decrease of nor epinephrine levels in students while they listen to preferred music. Nor epinephrine is a neurotransmitter that arbitrates chemical communication in the sympathetic nervous system of the human body. The release of this neurotransmitter, as a consequence of a function of the brain, results in an increased heart rate and heightened blood pressure. Therefore, the decrease of nor epinephrine in these college students results in a more relaxed state. This could suggest that favored or pleasant music somehow affects the mind, resulting in the relaxing of the body. Another research project, undertaken at the Tokyo Institute of Psychiatry, focuses on the effects of music on the mind using electroencephalograms (EEG). An electroencephalograph is a medical instrument that is capable of showing the electrical activity of the brain by measuring electrical potentials on the scalp. In this experiment, volunteers were exposed to silence, music, white noise (simulated hiss), and then silence. The result of this experiment coincides with the previous findings. The volunteers all reported feeling a calming sensation. However, the researches did not attribute the lowered tension to reduced neurotransmitter levels. While listening to music, many of the subjects reported that they felt pleasantly relaxed or comfortable… Music may evoke more organized mental activities which result in subjectively comfortable feelings.

The 'good' in the passage can be all of the following except ________.

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage.

There are, in essence, three schools of thought on the nature of the good: the intrinsic, the subjective, and the objective. The intrinsic theory holds that the good is inherent in certain things or actions as such, regardless of their context and consequences, regardless of any benefit or injury they may cause to the actors and subjects involved. It is a theory that divorces the concept of “good” from beneficiaries, and the concept of “value” from valuer and purpose – claiming that the good is good in, by, and of itself.

The subjective theory holds that the good bears no relation to the facts of reality, that it is the product of a man’s consciousness, created by his feelings, desires, “intuitions,” or whims, and that it is merely an “arbitrary postulate” or an “emotional commitment.”

The intrinsic theory holds that the good resides in some sort of reality, independent of man’s consciousness whereas the subjectivist theory holds that the good resides in man’s consciousness, independent of reality.

The objective theory holds that the good is neither an attribute of “things in themselves” nor of man’s emotional states, but an evaluation of the facts of reality by man’s consciousness according to a rational standard of value. (Rational, in this context, means: derived from the facts of reality and validated by a process of reason.) The objective theory holds that the good is an aspect of reality in relations to man – and that it must be discovered, not invented, by man. Fundamental to an objective theory of values is the question: Of value to whom and for what? An objective theory does not permit context-dropping or “concept-stealing”; it does not permit the separation of “value” from “purpose,” of the good from beneficiaries, and of man’s actions from reason.

Which of the following way describes the passage?

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage.

There are, in essence, three schools of thought on the nature of the good: the intrinsic, the subjective, and the objective. The intrinsic theory holds that the good is inherent in certain things or actions as such, regardless of their context and consequences, regardless of any benefit or injury they may cause to the actors and subjects involved. It is a theory that divorces the concept of “good” from beneficiaries, and the concept of “value” from valuer and purpose – claiming that the good is good in, by, and of itself.

The subjective theory holds that the good bears no relation to the facts of reality, that it is the product of a man’s consciousness, created by his feelings, desires, “intuitions,” or whims, and that it is merely an “arbitrary postulate” or an “emotional commitment.”

The intrinsic theory holds that the good resides in some sort of reality, independent of man’s consciousness whereas the subjectivist theory holds that the good resides in man’s consciousness, independent of reality.

The objective theory holds that the good is neither an attribute of “things in themselves” nor of man’s emotional states, but an evaluation of the facts of reality by man’s consciousness according to a rational standard of value. (Rational, in this context, means: derived from the facts of reality and validated by a process of reason.) The objective theory holds that the good is an aspect of reality in relations to man – and that it must be discovered, not invented, by man. Fundamental to an objective theory of values is the question: Of value to whom and for what? An objective theory does not permit context-dropping or “concept-stealing”; it does not permit the separation of “value” from “purpose,” of the good from beneficiaries, and of man’s actions from reason.

The following are the relationships between mind and body according to Descartes except

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage:

"I think therefore I am" the well-known quote of Rene Descartes, is the basis of his theory known as dualism. The intermingling of mind and body or res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) displays Descartes' ideas of a "genuine human being". Known as the father of modern philosophy, Descartes realised that one could not analyse a problem simply on the common sense level, but that one must "probe to the micro-level".

Through his technique of doubting everything, which he believed to exist and establishing a new philosophy, Descartes discovered that without a doubt, the only thing he could truly believe, to exist was his own mind. He then supposed that a demon was deceiving him by causing him to believe that which he saw. With this idea, he concluded, "all external things are merely the delusions of dreams"(Descartes' Meditations as cited in Cottingham 23) which the demon has devised. By being able to convince himself of ideas and by being able to be deceived by the demon, Descartes could assume that he existed. He also came to the conclusion that if he were to cease from thinking, he would cease to exist entirely.

"I regard the body as a machine so built and put together...that still, although it had no mind, it would not fail to move" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Jones). Descartes' idea of the body being totally independent of the mind is known as the mechanistic view. Descartes explains this concept by offering the explanation that spirits enter the brain cavities, proceed to the nerves, and change the shapes of the muscles in order for movements of the body to take place. The mechanistic view compares the body to several different mechanical objects including clocks and fountains. However, Descartes found that the human body was in every way better built than any mechanism a human could devise (Shapin 158).

"There is a vast difference between the mind and the body, in that the body...is always divisible, while the mind is completely indivisible" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Strathern 67). Although Descartes claimed that the mind and body were totally separate beings, he also found that they were closely intertwined. Descartes concluded that because a body part could be removed without taking away from the mind, the body was a separate being (Cottingham 36). The interdependence of the mind and body was what Descartes considered a human being; the mind and body formed a unit. Descartes found that because you sense things occurring to the body through the mind, then if the body and mind were not intertwined, one would not have any feelings in the body. These "feelings" in the body are what Descartes called "confused thoughts" (Cottingham 40) because they could not be explained through equations or logical connections. The confirmation for the idea that the mind and body were closely connected was the fact that one can never separate from his body, and can feel and sense things only through his own body.

Descartes' philosophy "transformed European thought" (Strathern 55) by causing people to gradually reject the Aristotelian views of the mind and body. Although later philosophers including Locke, Berkeley, and Hume rejected Descartes' ideas, other philosophers such as Regis and Malebranche expanded and improved upon Descartes' philosophy to form Cartesianism.

The primary purpose of the passage is

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage:

"I think therefore I am" the well-known quote of Rene Descartes, is the basis of his theory known as dualism. The intermingling of mind and body or res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) displays Descartes' ideas of a "genuine human being". Known as the father of modern philosophy, Descartes realised that one could not analyse a problem simply on the common sense level, but that one must "probe to the micro-level".

Through his technique of doubting everything, which he believed to exist and establishing a new philosophy, Descartes discovered that without a doubt, the only thing he could truly believe, to exist was his own mind. He then supposed that a demon was deceiving him by causing him to believe that which he saw. With this idea, he concluded, "all external things are merely the delusions of dreams"(Descartes' Meditations as cited in Cottingham 23) which the demon has devised. By being able to convince himself of ideas and by being able to be deceived by the demon, Descartes could assume that he existed. He also came to the conclusion that if he were to cease from thinking, he would cease to exist entirely.

"I regard the body as a machine so built and put together...that still, although it had no mind, it would not fail to move" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Jones). Descartes' idea of the body being totally independent of the mind is known as the mechanistic view. Descartes explains this concept by offering the explanation that spirits enter the brain cavities, proceed to the nerves, and change the shapes of the muscles in order for movements of the body to take place. The mechanistic view compares the body to several different mechanical objects including clocks and fountains. However, Descartes found that the human body was in every way better built than any mechanism a human could devise (Shapin 158).

"There is a vast difference between the mind and the body, in that the body...is always divisible, while the mind is completely indivisible" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Strathern 67). Although Descartes claimed that the mind and body were totally separate beings, he also found that they were closely intertwined. Descartes concluded that because a body part could be removed without taking away from the mind, the body was a separate being (Cottingham 36). The interdependence of the mind and body was what Descartes considered a human being; the mind and body formed a unit. Descartes found that because you sense things occurring to the body through the mind, then if the body and mind were not intertwined, one would not have any feelings in the body. These "feelings" in the body are what Descartes called "confused thoughts" (Cottingham 40) because they could not be explained through equations or logical connections. The confirmation for the idea that the mind and body were closely connected was the fact that one can never separate from his body, and can feel and sense things only through his own body.

Descartes' philosophy "transformed European thought" (Strathern 55) by causing people to gradually reject the Aristotelian views of the mind and body. Although later philosophers including Locke, Berkeley, and Hume rejected Descartes' ideas, other philosophers such as Regis and Malebranche expanded and improved upon Descartes' philosophy to form Cartesianism.

Which of the following sentences best states the central idea behind the passage?

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage:

"I think therefore I am" the well-known quote of Rene Descartes, is the basis of his theory known as dualism. The intermingling of mind and body or res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) displays Descartes' ideas of a "genuine human being". Known as the father of modern philosophy, Descartes realised that one could not analyse a problem simply on the common sense level, but that one must "probe to the micro-level".

Through his technique of doubting everything, which he believed to exist and establishing a new philosophy, Descartes discovered that without a doubt, the only thing he could truly believe, to exist was his own mind. He then supposed that a demon was deceiving him by causing him to believe that which he saw. With this idea, he concluded, "all external things are merely the delusions of dreams"(Descartes' Meditations as cited in Cottingham 23) which the demon has devised. By being able to convince himself of ideas and by being able to be deceived by the demon, Descartes could assume that he existed. He also came to the conclusion that if he were to cease from thinking, he would cease to exist entirely.

"I regard the body as a machine so built and put together...that still, although it had no mind, it would not fail to move" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Jones). Descartes' idea of the body being totally independent of the mind is known as the mechanistic view. Descartes explains this concept by offering the explanation that spirits enter the brain cavities, proceed to the nerves, and change the shapes of the muscles in order for movements of the body to take place. The mechanistic view compares the body to several different mechanical objects including clocks and fountains. However, Descartes found that the human body was in every way better built than any mechanism a human could devise (Shapin 158).

"There is a vast difference between the mind and the body, in that the body...is always divisible, while the mind is completely indivisible" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Strathern 67). Although Descartes claimed that the mind and body were totally separate beings, he also found that they were closely intertwined. Descartes concluded that because a body part could be removed without taking away from the mind, the body was a separate being (Cottingham 36). The interdependence of the mind and body was what Descartes considered a human being; the mind and body formed a unit. Descartes found that because you sense things occurring to the body through the mind, then if the body and mind were not intertwined, one would not have any feelings in the body. These "feelings" in the body are what Descartes called "confused thoughts" (Cottingham 40) because they could not be explained through equations or logical connections. The confirmation for the idea that the mind and body were closely connected was the fact that one can never separate from his body, and can feel and sense things only through his own body.

Descartes' philosophy "transformed European thought" (Strathern 55) by causing people to gradually reject the Aristotelian views of the mind and body. Although later philosophers including Locke, Berkeley, and Hume rejected Descartes' ideas, other philosophers such as Regis and Malebranche expanded and improved upon Descartes' philosophy to form Cartesianism.

The passage provides information that can answer which of the following questions?

I. Where did Descartes’ theory originate? II. What factors can be attributed for the evanescence of the Descartes’ theory? III. The passage provides information about the psyche’s supremacy over the mind.

Directions: Answer the question based on the following passage:

"I think therefore I am" the well-known quote of Rene Descartes, is the basis of his theory known as dualism. The intermingling of mind and body or res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) displays Descartes' ideas of a "genuine human being". Known as the father of modern philosophy, Descartes realised that one could not analyse a problem simply on the common sense level, but that one must "probe to the micro-level".

Through his technique of doubting everything, which he believed to exist and establishing a new philosophy, Descartes discovered that without a doubt, the only thing he could truly believe, to exist was his own mind. He then supposed that a demon was deceiving him by causing him to believe that which he saw. With this idea, he concluded, "all external things are merely the delusions of dreams"(Descartes' Meditations as cited in Cottingham 23) which the demon has devised. By being able to convince himself of ideas and by being able to be deceived by the demon, Descartes could assume that he existed. He also came to the conclusion that if he were to cease from thinking, he would cease to exist entirely.

"I regard the body as a machine so built and put together...that still, although it had no mind, it would not fail to move" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Jones). Descartes' idea of the body being totally independent of the mind is known as the mechanistic view. Descartes explains this concept by offering the explanation that spirits enter the brain cavities, proceed to the nerves, and change the shapes of the muscles in order for movements of the body to take place. The mechanistic view compares the body to several different mechanical objects including clocks and fountains. However, Descartes found that the human body was in every way better built than any mechanism a human could devise (Shapin 158).

"There is a vast difference between the mind and the body, in that the body...is always divisible, while the mind is completely indivisible" (Descartes' Meditations as cited in Strathern 67). Although Descartes claimed that the mind and body were totally separate beings, he also found that they were closely intertwined. Descartes concluded that because a body part could be removed without taking away from the mind, the body was a separate being (Cottingham 36). The interdependence of the mind and body was what Descartes considered a human being; the mind and body formed a unit. Descartes found that because you sense things occurring to the body through the mind, then if the body and mind were not intertwined, one would not have any feelings in the body. These "feelings" in the body are what Descartes called "confused thoughts" (Cottingham 40) because they could not be explained through equations or logical connections. The confirmation for the idea that the mind and body were closely connected was the fact that one can never separate from his body, and can feel and sense things only through his own body.

Descartes' philosophy "transformed European thought" (Strathern 55) by causing people to gradually reject the Aristotelian views of the mind and body. Although later philosophers including Locke, Berkeley, and Hume rejected Descartes' ideas, other philosophers such as Regis and Malebranche expanded and improved upon Descartes' philosophy to form Cartesianism.