Indian Philosophy and Aesthetics

Jainism believes in non-violence (ahimsa), the theory of Karma, and the concept of Nirvana (moksha). However, Jainism explicitly rejects the authority and divinity of the Vedas, which is what makes it distinct from orthodox Vedic Hinduism.

Jainism did weaken the caste system by preaching equality, it did initiate reforms in Hinduism (leading to the Bhakti movement), and it did create a desire for service to mankind through its emphasis on compassion. All three were genuine influences of Jainism on Indian society.

Buddhism's rapid spread was due to its easy teachings (Middle Path, Eightfold Path), royal patronage (Ashoka, Kanishka), and Buddha's ideal life. The exception is that Buddhism DID allow flexibility and adapted to local cultures - this flexibility was actually a key reason for its spread, not a barrier.

Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council at Srinagar (Kundalvan) around 78 CE, where Buddhism split into Hinayana and Mahayana. He did expand Buddhism outside India, and Gandhara art flourished under him, but the council is his most defining legacy.

In the Rig Veda, 'Varna' refers to the classification of 'Arya' (the noble people) and 'Dasa' (the indigenous people they encountered). It later evolved into the fourfold caste system, but originally only described this social distinction.

In Jainism, Tirthankars are the 24 spiritual teachers and enlightened beings who show the path to liberation. Mahavira is believed to be the 24th and last Tirthankar, not the founder of a new religion.

Nigranthas (meaning 'the unfettered ones') was the original name for Mahavira's followers. This sect later came to be known as Jains. Svetambara and Terapanthi are later Jain sects, while Sanmatti is not related to Jainism.

According to Svetambara tradition, the 14 Purvas were the original texts containing Mahavira's teachings. These are now lost. The Angas are the existing canonical texts that replaced them. Upanga Agamas and Mulasutras are different categories of Jain texts.

Mahayana Sutras claim to contain the original teachings of Gautama Buddha that were allegedly hidden or transmitted secretly. Mahayana Buddhists believe these represent Buddha's higher, more advanced teachings compared to earlier scriptures. Mahavir and Parsav (Parshvanatha) were Jain Tirthankaras, while Sevdatta is unrelated.

Buddhism is primarily divided into two major schools: Theravada (School of the Elders) and Mahayana (Great Vehicle). Theravada is dominant in Southeast Asia, while Mahayana spread to East Asia. Tibetan and Shingon are sub-traditions within Buddhism, and Hinayana is a term sometimes used for early schools but not commonly used for self-identification.

The most revolutionary step was Buddha's acceptance of women into the monastic order as nuns (bhikkhunis), despite initial reluctance. This gave women a spiritual path and social status unprecedented in ancient India. Women could preach and teach, but acceptance into the order was the fundamental breakthrough.

The Purvas were the ancient lost scriptures of Jainism that Sthulabhadra helped preserve through a council in Mathura. When Bhadrabahu was in South India, Northern monks realized these sacred texts were being forgotten, so they convened to recompile them. This was a critical moment in Jain religious history to prevent the loss of foundational teachings.

Jainism's three-fold path is called the Ratnatraya or Three Jewels: Right Belief, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct. These three pillars must be developed together for spiritual liberation. Right belief means accepting the reality of soul and karma, right knowledge is understanding the nature of reality, and right conduct is ethical living based on non-violence.

The Saka Era is the basis of India's national calendar, which was officially adopted in 1957. The calendar starts from 78 AD, marking the accession of the Saka king. It is used alongside the Gregorian calendar for official government purposes.