Geology and Earth Structure

The African Plate is located beneath Africa.

The Antarctic Plate is located beneath Antarctica.

Seafloor spreading is the process by which new oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges. As tectonic plates move apart, magma rises from the mantle and solidifies, forming new crust.

Subduction is the process by which oceanic crust is recycled back into the mantle. As one tectonic plate moves beneath another, the oceanic crust is forced down into the mantle, where it melts and is reabsorbed.

Continental drift is the process by which continents move over time. This movement is driven by the convection currents in the Earth's mantle, which cause tectonic plates to move.

Plate tectonics is the process by which tectonic plates move. This movement is driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, which cause the plates to move relative to each other.

Seafloor spreading is the process by which oceanic crust is formed at divergent plate boundaries. As tectonic plates move apart, magma rises from the mantle and solidifies, forming new crust.

Subduction is the process by which oceanic crust is destroyed at convergent plate boundaries. As one tectonic plate moves beneath another, the oceanic crust is forced down into the mantle, where it melts and is reabsorbed.

Plate tectonics is the process by which tectonic plates, large pieces of Earth's lithosphere, move and interact with each other, resulting in various geological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.

P-waves, also known as primary waves, are the fastest seismic waves and can travel through both solid and liquid materials. They are compressional waves, meaning they cause particles to move back and forth in the direction of wave propagation.

Volcanism is the process by which magma, molten rock from the Earth's interior, rises to the surface and erupts, forming volcanoes and releasing various gases and materials into the atmosphere.

ERT is a geophysical method that measures the electrical conductivity of the subsurface by injecting electrical current into the ground and measuring the resulting voltage differences.

Seismic reflection surveys measure the seismic velocity of the subsurface by analyzing the travel times of seismic waves that are reflected from subsurface layers.

Seismic refraction surveys are primarily used to detect subsurface cavities, such as caves, tunnels, and sinkholes, by analyzing the travel times of seismic waves that are refracted at the boundary between different layers of rock.

ERT is a geophysical method that measures the electrical conductivity of the subsurface by injecting electrical current into the ground and measuring the resulting voltage differences.