English Reading Comprehension

As an essay it will be categorized as

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An English soldier whose fortunes, for most of the war, were not out of the common, left England and landed in France by the same ports as Falstaff and Henry V on their journey to Agincourt. He disembarked on the quay where Burne-Jones and Morris, walking there in their youth, had vowed themselves to the careers by which they were to tint the mind of educated England for a generation. He first marched up into the line across the country of Dumas’s Three Musketeers, passing the belfry of Bethune and tramping the road to Cambrin, which the son of Athons had ridden to join the staff of Conde. Dulled for a time by the effect of combustion, his hunger for seeing the sights revived in a tent in the park of Versailles, near the Petit Trianon, where countless bunches of mistletoe sat still, like pheasants, on the boughs of trees that had been young with Marie-Antoinette. When convalescent, he sojourned under canvas for two winter months upon the sands where Napoleon had mustered his grand armada of flat-bottomed craft for the projected descent upon England. Restored for a season to his own friends in the line, he was presently sent travelling again, this time by trench fever. He came to his wits, warm and at rest, in a marvellous tent lined with silk and double-walled, the gift of an Indian Prince to an Emperor.  Beneficent and inscrutable powers bore him away to a regal city where Joan of Arc had been burnt and King John had murdered Prince Arthur. When he could walk on a deck, genies carried him down to a quay and put him on board a black ship, to glide for a whole sunny April day down the unwinding coils of a river, so divinely puissant and so fringed with diverse delights to the eye, that a lifetime’s loyalty to our queenly Thames was for some dizzy moments seriously imperiled. Falling early to sleep, the serene infant sleep of health reborn, he awoke to the sound of water lapping quietly under opened potholes—Southampton. Water rippling and shining, fringed with inviolate trees, the unshelled houses gleaming white and red among them: England ten times herself, intoxicatingly unforeign. And the English trains, smooth movers along well-wheeled tracks through cuttings vivacious with the English primrose, to drop the impersonally conducted tourist in a new dwelling-place of wonder, with Plymouth Sound below his window and Drake’s bowling-green above his chimneys.
To charm him next there came a month of guarding on the Firth of Forth, of living in a half-dismantled ancient fort, a fort of Walter Scott, with Edinburgh Castle lifting to the skies above the great smoke in the south, and the first Highland hills to the north-west stretched out pensive in the long midsummer sunsets that always had the gaunt queer lines of the Forth Bridge laid down on them monstrously black; and once the great fleet streaming out in slow procession from its guarded haunt above the bridge, and returning a day or two later, diminished and bringing its wounded, some ships in tow, some with their funnels knocked awry, and moving slowly, as with pain; some with a first-aid dressing of red-painted bedding stuffed into holes in their sides; and then the first leave men coming chuckling ashore at the pier and telling the soldiers off duty how they had knocked Fritz at Jutland; their voices are audible still, and the laughter mingling in the summer night with a plashing of oars and elfish summer lightning while the sentry searchlight, grave, alert and steady on its post, wheels to and fro across the gateway of the Firth.
The spectacle of many battles followed—defeat and victory, always in illustrious places; the Somme with its sultry months of slaughter-house smell and flies and frustration; Arras, petering out in futile attrition after its first wondrous morning of tempest, rain and wasted valour, when the battle, seen from above, wrote itself clear in legible letters of flame on the blackboard of a moonless last hour of night; Messines, where all the British mines, exploding together in the flight’s first moment, shook the little hill from which our soldier looked down upon the fight as if it were a little boat on a choppy sea; and Flanders, Cambrai, St Quentin and all the great days of the three months of triumph.  (from The Right Place by CE Montague)

This passage which comes in the form of an essay can be categorized as

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The cat was made for love and warmth and softness. These bring out all her best qualities. She is nearest perfection sleeping in a fluffy coil by the fire, secure of the same warmth in one human heart. We must let sleeping dogs lie, but we can bury our face in a sleeping cat and she stirs only to purr. No waking thoughts were ever more innocent. She is as near as heaven as we can get on earth, blissful, quiet, content. She alone of animals knows how to luxuriate in perfect rest. As she lies in a bath of firelight, listening to the flames, breathing her low contented hum, she does not have to consider getting out and drying herself, but lays her mind to rock on a stream of gentle truthfulness. And when this beautiful petted cat awakes with a wide yawn, and stretches herself bit by bit as if to bring her wandering spirit back by some elaborate conjuror’s trick, she wakes to the life for which she is perfectly fitted. The cat needs human affection. It is not like a rabbit, pleased to eat and frisk in lonely nature and the farther from human notice the better, nor like a sparrow or a mouse, attracted to the haunts of man by crumbs. The wild domestic cat that dodges round corners or bolts up trees, whose claw is against every man and whom every dog chases, is not the natural un-reclaimed cat, but a poor outcast from its natural heritage. Deprived of its security in man’s love the cat becomes almost a nerve-shattered maniac; and yet a little affection will turn it into the fluffy darling.
Not instinct, but experience, makes animals afraid. The young thrush comes within a yard as we sit chatting on the garden seat. Old birds trust us less, except in a land of Buddha. The scared cat is circumstantial evidence of our brutality. Even cats and dogs have no natural antipathy. They get the reputation for it because their habits in the streets are complementary; the cat runs and the dog chases. Not once in a thousand dogs would know what to do with the cat if he caught her. When a cat strikes an attitude in his path, the dog draws round her a polite circle. In a state of nature they would live in perfect amity. A kitten and a puppy greet each other with unguarded trust. Dogs usually become catters only through thoughtlessness or the sporting instinct of their owners. Though always ready to chase anything that runs, they have much kindlier nature than men. A retriever puppy will watch a rabbit hop leisurely across the lawn within ten yards of him, who never saw one dart along the road without giving a chase. An Irish terrier was seen the other day playing with a mouse, and, till the little creature bit his too inquisitive nose, no instinct prompted him to kill it. The same terrier chased the flying beech leaves as if he would catch Autumn before he stopped. If dogs and cats are born with an ultimate hunting instinct, as many blue-eyed babies will ultimately have brown eyes, they certainly start life innocent.
Although cats do not learn tricks invented by their frivolous owners, they adapt themselves very quickly to strange circumstances. Cats imported into Jamaica cleared the country of vermin so effectively that they soon left nothing to eat but insects, and on these, an occasional appetizer in their natural diet, they now live. (The Cat by Katherine M. Wilson)

What, according to the passage, could turn a nerve-shattering maniac into a fluffy darling?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The cat was made for love and warmth and softness. These bring out all her best qualities. She is nearest perfection sleeping in a fluffy coil by the fire, secure of the same warmth in one human heart. We must let sleeping dogs lie, but we can bury our face in a sleeping cat and she stirs only to purr. No waking thoughts were ever more innocent. She is as near as heaven as we can get on earth, blissful, quiet, content. She alone of animals knows how to luxuriate in perfect rest. As she lies in a bath of firelight, listening to the flames, breathing her low contented hum, she does not have to consider getting out and drying herself, but lays her mind to rock on a stream of gentle truthfulness. And when this beautiful petted cat awakes with a wide yawn, and stretches herself bit by bit as if to bring her wandering spirit back by some elaborate conjuror’s trick, she wakes to the life for which she is perfectly fitted. The cat needs human affection. It is not like a rabbit, pleased to eat and frisk in lonely nature and the farther from human notice the better, nor like a sparrow or a mouse, attracted to the haunts of man by crumbs. The wild domestic cat that dodges round corners or bolts up trees, whose claw is against every man and whom every dog chases, is not the natural un-reclaimed cat, but a poor outcast from its natural heritage. Deprived of its security in man’s love the cat becomes almost a nerve-shattered maniac; and yet a little affection will turn it into the fluffy darling.
Not instinct, but experience, makes animals afraid. The young thrush comes within a yard as we sit chatting on the garden seat. Old birds trust us less, except in a land of Buddha. The scared cat is circumstantial evidence of our brutality. Even cats and dogs have no natural antipathy. They get the reputation for it because their habits in the streets are complementary; the cat runs and the dog chases. Not once in a thousand dogs would know what to do with the cat if he caught her. When a cat strikes an attitude in his path, the dog draws round her a polite circle. In a state of nature they would live in perfect amity. A kitten and a puppy greet each other with unguarded trust. Dogs usually become catters only through thoughtlessness or the sporting instinct of their owners. Though always ready to chase anything that runs, they have much kindlier nature than men. A retriever puppy will watch a rabbit hop leisurely across the lawn within ten yards of him, who never saw one dart along the road without giving a chase. An Irish terrier was seen the other day playing with a mouse, and, till the little creature bit his too inquisitive nose, no instinct prompted him to kill it. The same terrier chased the flying beech leaves as if he would catch Autumn before he stopped. If dogs and cats are born with an ultimate hunting instinct, as many blue-eyed babies will ultimately have brown eyes, they certainly start life innocent.
Although cats do not learn tricks invented by their frivolous owners, they adapt themselves very quickly to strange circumstances. Cats imported into Jamaica cleared the country of vermin so effectively that they soon left nothing to eat but insects, and on these, an occasional appetizer in their natural diet, they now live. (The Cat by Katherine M. Wilson)

What lends support to the author's assertion in the passage that dogs are not the natural enemies of cats?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The cat was made for love and warmth and softness. These bring out all her best qualities. She is nearest perfection sleeping in a fluffy coil by the fire, secure of the same warmth in one human heart. We must let sleeping dogs lie, but we can bury our face in a sleeping cat and she stirs only to purr. No waking thoughts were ever more innocent. She is as near as heaven as we can get on earth, blissful, quiet, content. She alone of animals knows how to luxuriate in perfect rest. As she lies in a bath of firelight, listening to the flames, breathing her low contented hum, she does not have to consider getting out and drying herself, but lays her mind to rock on a stream of gentle truthfulness. And when this beautiful petted cat awakes with a wide yawn, and stretches herself bit by bit as if to bring her wandering spirit back by some elaborate conjuror’s trick, she wakes to the life for which she is perfectly fitted. The cat needs human affection. It is not like a rabbit, pleased to eat and frisk in lonely nature and the farther from human notice the better, nor like a sparrow or a mouse, attracted to the haunts of man by crumbs. The wild domestic cat that dodges round corners or bolts up trees, whose claw is against every man and whom every dog chases, is not the natural un-reclaimed cat, but a poor outcast from its natural heritage. Deprived of its security in man’s love the cat becomes almost a nerve-shattered maniac; and yet a little affection will turn it into the fluffy darling.
Not instinct, but experience, makes animals afraid. The young thrush comes within a yard as we sit chatting on the garden seat. Old birds trust us less, except in a land of Buddha. The scared cat is circumstantial evidence of our brutality. Even cats and dogs have no natural antipathy. They get the reputation for it because their habits in the streets are complementary; the cat runs and the dog chases. Not once in a thousand dogs would know what to do with the cat if he caught her. When a cat strikes an attitude in his path, the dog draws round her a polite circle. In a state of nature they would live in perfect amity. A kitten and a puppy greet each other with unguarded trust. Dogs usually become catters only through thoughtlessness or the sporting instinct of their owners. Though always ready to chase anything that runs, they have much kindlier nature than men. A retriever puppy will watch a rabbit hop leisurely across the lawn within ten yards of him, who never saw one dart along the road without giving a chase. An Irish terrier was seen the other day playing with a mouse, and, till the little creature bit his too inquisitive nose, no instinct prompted him to kill it. The same terrier chased the flying beech leaves as if he would catch Autumn before he stopped. If dogs and cats are born with an ultimate hunting instinct, as many blue-eyed babies will ultimately have brown eyes, they certainly start life innocent.
Although cats do not learn tricks invented by their frivolous owners, they adapt themselves very quickly to strange circumstances. Cats imported into Jamaica cleared the country of vermin so effectively that they soon left nothing to eat but insects, and on these, an occasional appetizer in their natural diet, they now live. (The Cat by Katherine M. Wilson)

Why does the author say that the scared cat is circumstantial evidence of our brutality?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The cat was made for love and warmth and softness. These bring out all her best qualities. She is nearest perfection sleeping in a fluffy coil by the fire, secure of the same warmth in one human heart. We must let sleeping dogs lie, but we can bury our face in a sleeping cat and she stirs only to purr. No waking thoughts were ever more innocent. She is as near as heaven as we can get on earth, blissful, quiet, content. She alone of animals knows how to luxuriate in perfect rest. As she lies in a bath of firelight, listening to the flames, breathing her low contented hum, she does not have to consider getting out and drying herself, but lays her mind to rock on a stream of gentle truthfulness. And when this beautiful petted cat awakes with a wide yawn, and stretches herself bit by bit as if to bring her wandering spirit back by some elaborate conjuror’s trick, she wakes to the life for which she is perfectly fitted. The cat needs human affection. It is not like a rabbit, pleased to eat and frisk in lonely nature and the farther from human notice the better, nor like a sparrow or a mouse, attracted to the haunts of man by crumbs. The wild domestic cat that dodges round corners or bolts up trees, whose claw is against every man and whom every dog chases, is not the natural un-reclaimed cat, but a poor outcast from its natural heritage. Deprived of its security in man’s love the cat becomes almost a nerve-shattered maniac; and yet a little affection will turn it into the fluffy darling.
Not instinct, but experience, makes animals afraid. The young thrush comes within a yard as we sit chatting on the garden seat. Old birds trust us less, except in a land of Buddha. The scared cat is circumstantial evidence of our brutality. Even cats and dogs have no natural antipathy. They get the reputation for it because their habits in the streets are complementary; the cat runs and the dog chases. Not once in a thousand dogs would know what to do with the cat if he caught her. When a cat strikes an attitude in his path, the dog draws round her a polite circle. In a state of nature they would live in perfect amity. A kitten and a puppy greet each other with unguarded trust. Dogs usually become catters only through thoughtlessness or the sporting instinct of their owners. Though always ready to chase anything that runs, they have much kindlier nature than men. A retriever puppy will watch a rabbit hop leisurely across the lawn within ten yards of him, who never saw one dart along the road without giving a chase. An Irish terrier was seen the other day playing with a mouse, and, till the little creature bit his too inquisitive nose, no instinct prompted him to kill it. The same terrier chased the flying beech leaves as if he would catch Autumn before he stopped. If dogs and cats are born with an ultimate hunting instinct, as many blue-eyed babies will ultimately have brown eyes, they certainly start life innocent.
Although cats do not learn tricks invented by their frivolous owners, they adapt themselves very quickly to strange circumstances. Cats imported into Jamaica cleared the country of vermin so effectively that they soon left nothing to eat but insects, and on these, an occasional appetizer in their natural diet, they now live. (The Cat by Katherine M. Wilson)

Which one of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2?

The manner in which Americans select their President has always been criticized by both Americans and people living in other parts of the world. For one thing, the US Presidential Election is nothing short of a farce. It is based on a complex, anachronistic setup called the Electoral College. So what exactly is the Electoral College? Well, you cannot define it in one or two words. It is a complex and often problematic system that distinguishes the United States from other democracies of the world. The Electoral College is different from the parliamentary system of the United Kingdom or Japan. It is also different from the system of direct popular vote South Koreans use to elect their President.  Because the Electoral College does not ensure the full participation of all citizens in the election some people believe that it is a handicap to the country’s democratic process. According to them its elimination is essential to elevate the United States into the world of modern democracy where energetic and involved electorate selects presidents who are well aware of the needs and wants of the citizens who vote for them.

The current Presidential Election system in the US is so complex that most citizens of the country are unaware of the way it works. To put it simply, the election system in the US is a two-stage process. The country has 50 states and each of them is allotted a number of electoral votes. These electoral votes are used only to elect the president and correspond to the number of Congressional members in each state. As a result, states with small populations may have three or four electoral votes, while large states may have dozens. On Election Day each state holds its own presidential vote and within each state, one presidential candidate wins the popular vote, which is the vote by the citizens. This candidate who wins the popular vote in a state also wins all of that state’s electoral votes. To become the President a candidate has to win the largest number of electoral votes. Therefore, it is crucial for a candidate to win the popular vote in states with the most electoral votes.

There are several problems with this system. First, presidential candidates know that they only need electoral votes to win the election, so they tend to campaign only in large states that have more electoral votes, creating a gulf between themselves and a significant fraction of the electorate. Furthermore, many people who support political minorities do not bother to vote at all because they know that the candidate they favor will not win in their state anyway. Both situations reduce citizen representation significantly. The final problem with the Electoral College is even more serious. Because of its ‘winner-take-all’ nature, the Electoral College can actually elect a candidate who received fewer popular votes than his/her opponent, altogether thwarting the purpose of the election in the first place. This unfortunate circumstance has come about several times. For example, in the 2000 Presidential election Democratic candidate Al Gore had won more popular votes than Republican candidate George W Bush. However, Bush was elected President because he had more electoral votes.

Although the system of Electoral College looks ineffective in today’s political and economic circumstances, there was a time when it was necessary. For one thing, the Electoral College has its origins in the country’s federal system. When America was established there was little sense of national identity among its people. In fact, people usually identified themselves as citizens of their states and few bothered to call themselves Americans. In those early days each state functioned more or less like an independent country. And hence the founding fathers of the country felt that the decisions affecting the entire nation should be taken at the state level. Furthermore, the United States has always been a very large country. Therefore in those days when the communication and transportation systems were still in their nascent stages, running a nationwide election campaign was quite difficult. So the Electoral College was provided as a solution.

None of these factors are significant now. Over the years, Americans have developed a very strong sense of national identity and are now keen on playing a direct role in the selection of their leaders. Communication and transportation systems, too, have advanced significantly so that it is now easy to conduct nationwide political campaigns. Needless to say, many people have started insisting that the institution of Electoral College should be abandoned. They argue that in its place, the United States should adopt a modern system that would promote, not discourage, the participation of all citizens in the electoral process. In fact, such a method is essential to remind the presidential candidates that it is the people’s voices that matter most.

In paragraph 4, the author states that

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

In paragraph 7, the author provides information about genetic studies to

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

Directions: Choose the word nearest in meaning from the given options for the word genus in the passage.

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

The phrase the intermediates refers to

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

The word admittedly as used in the passage is closest to

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

Based on the information in paragraph 1, which of the following can be properly inferred?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

The author's opinion about species classification would best be described as

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

Which of the sentences below best expresses the meaning of the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.

The phrase neat compartments most nearly means

Directions: Read the passage and answer the following question.

SALAMANDERS AND SPECIES NAMES

 When reviewing the current journals of taxonomy, the science of organizing animals into neat little classifications, it is important to remember that names are a human convenience. Nature is not concerned with putting her creations into simple and objective categories. The classifications that we now have are the result of the scientists’ need to put some sort of order into what is a very chaotic situation. And although taxonomists have the best intentions when naming and classifying new or existing species, there are many occasions when naming a species causes quite a bit of confusion.

An excellent example of the problem with naming species is the case of Ensatina, a genus of salamander found in the Central Valley area of California. Central Valley is about 40 miles wide, and although salamanders do not live in the valley itself, they are found in the forests and mountains that ring the valley. At the southern tip of the valley live two distinct types of salamander—one salamander is characterized by its yellow and black spots, whereas the other is light brown in color and has no spots.

(A <) In biology, a species is typically defined as a group of animals that breed only with one another. (B <) Thus, any two animals that can breed belong to the same species, whereas animals that are unable to breed with one another are of a different species. (C <) The two Central Valley salamanders do not interbreed, which would seem to make it pretty clear that the salamanders should be classified as different species. (D <)

 But there is one interesting problem with these salamanders. A number of other salamanders inhabit the ring surrounding Central Valley. Moving north along the eastern side of the valley, the salamanders have fewer and fewer blotches. At the northern end of the valley, the salamanders appear to be a mixture of the two species; these salamanders are mostly brown, but they still have visible blotches.

Now, moving south along the western end of the valley, the salamanders have blotches that are more and more pronounced. Finally, by the time the southern tip of the valley is reached, the salamanders fully resemble the yellow and black spotted species. The salamanders in effect form an almost continuous ring around the outside of the Central Valley, and although the two distinct species at the “ends” of the ring do not interbreed, the salamanders can and do breed with “the intermediates” along the ring So although it is fairly clear that the salamanders at the ends of the ring are distinct species, what of the other salamanders found around the valley?

This situation presents quite a problem in classification. Most taxonomists have decided that the best solution is to put each of the intermediary salamanders into its own subspecies. However, this messy solution results in ten different species names for a salamander that is found only in the Central Valley. One can imagine how such a solution, applied to other species, could result in hundreds of thousands of subspecies for each species.

Further complicating the situation is the new evidence from genetic studies. It appears that the salamanders in Central Valley are all rather closely related, meaning that they all probably evolved from a common ancestor. A likely scenario is that the ancestral salamander species arrived at either the northern or southern tip of the valley and dispersed from there, with the offspring moving farther and farther down the eastern and western sides of the valley. In any case, the genetic evidence indicates a continuous gene flow along the Central Valley.