Child Development Test - 11

B.F. Skinner is the psychologist most famously associated with operant conditioning research and theory. Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement, punishment, and shaping behavior through consequences, conducting extensive experiments with the Skinner box. Pavlov is associated with classical conditioning, Maslow with humanistic psychology and hierarchy of needs, and Freud with psychoanalytic theory. Skinner's work on operant conditioning fundamentally shaped behaviorist psychology.

Advertisers use higher-order conditioning by pairing products with stimuli that already evoke positive emotional responses. For example, by associating a product with beautiful scenery, happy people, or uplifting music, advertisers create a positive emotional response to the product through classical conditioning. The previously neutral product becomes associated with the positive feelings elicited by the images. This creates a conditioned emotional response to the product itself.

A neutral stimulus is defined as a stimulus that does not naturally or automatically evoke the unconditioned response (UR) before conditioning occurs. By definition, it must be neutral with respect to the response being studied - otherwise it would already be an unconditioned stimulus. The entire point of identifying a neutral stimulus is that it can be paired with the US to eventually become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that evokes a conditioned response (CR).

Grades are a classic example of a secondary reinforcer because they acquire reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers like praise, approval, privileges, or future opportunities. Unlike primary reinforcers (sex, food, pain relief) which are biologically reinforcing and don't require learning, secondary reinforcers must be learned through association with already-reinforcing stimuli. Money is another common secondary reinforcer. Grades only become reinforcing through their connection to other positive outcomes.

Therapeutic sensory deprivation aims to create a controlled environment with reduced sensory input, allowing deep relaxation and stress reduction. The goal is NOT to induce pathological symptoms like delusions or hallucinations, but rather to promote mental calm and recovery from stress.

Infants do not sleep in long consolidated blocks like adults. Instead, they sleep in shorter cycles of 2-4 hours at a time, waking frequently for feeding and care. This pattern is developmentally normal and gradually consolidates into longer sleep periods as the child matures.

Prolonged sleep deprivation can lead to a temporary psychotic state characterized by confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations. This is called sleep deprivation psychosis. Micro-sleeps are brief sleep episodes, circadian rhythms are biological cycles, and sleep narcosis is not the correct term for this constellation.

Subliminal refers to stimuli that are processed below conscious awareness. Research shows some information can be perceived and processed without reaching conscious awareness, though debate continues about how much this influences behavior. The other options don't describe this concept of below-threshold processing.

Peripheral vision is what you see out of the corners of your eyes, outside your central focus. This ability is crucial for sports and driving because it helps detect movement and objects without directly looking at them. Tunnel vision restricts vision, astigmatism is a vision defect, and feature detection is a neural process.

Difference threshold refers to the minimum change in stimulus intensity that can be detected. This is also called Just Noticeable Difference (JND). Option A describes absolute threshold, C describes energy for receptors, and D is not a real measurement term. Difference thresholds are about detecting CHANGES, not initial detection.

Astigmatism is caused by an irregular curvature of the cornea or lens, leading to distorted vision at all distances. An eyeball that is too short causes farsightedness (hyperopia), while too long causes nearsightedness (myopia). Abnormal receptor distribution would affect different aspects of vision.

Aggression is defined as behavior intended to harm another person. Anger and hostility are internal emotional states that may accompany aggression but are not aggression themselves. The critical component is the intent to cause harm through action, distinguishing aggression from mere hostile feelings.

The foot-in-the-door effect describes the phenomenon where compliance with a small initial request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger subsequent request. This differs from the door-in-the-face technique (starting with an unreasonably large request that gets rejected, then making a smaller one). The low-ball and high-ball techniques involve changing the terms after commitment.

Research on TV effects shows mixed impacts - it can increase both aggressive AND prosocial behavior depending on content. The most reliable finding is that the amount of TV watching correlates with aggressive behavior later in life, though this is correlational not causal. Options A-C are incorrect because TV has multiple effects, not just one.

Conformity is the psychological process of changing behavior or beliefs to align with group norms. This is a fundamental concept in social psychology, demonstrated by Asch's line-judgment experiments. Norming refers to a stage in group development, standardization is about setting standards, and social contract is a theoretical concept.

Groupthink's real danger is that it suspends critical thinking - members suppress dissent and don't evaluate alternatives realistically. While groupthink is contagious (A) and occurs in cohesive groups (B), these are characteristics not dangers. Option C is incorrect because groupthink creates an illusion of unanimity that appears to coordinate efforts, albeit poorly.

Encopresis is the medical term for involuntary bowel movements or lack of bowel control, usually beyond the normal age for toilet training. Enuresis refers to bedwetting (urinary incontinence). The other options are not relevant terms for bowel control - analism is not a recognized term, and anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder.

The common mistake parents make is trying to protect children from ALL stress. While excessive stress is harmful, some stress is necessary for developing coping skills and resilience. The question asks about mistakes by "concerned" parents - these parents unintentionally harm their children's development by overprotecting them. Options A and B suggest deliberate or unintentional creation of stress, which is not what concerned parents typically do.

Research shows that physiological needs like hunger influence dream content. When hungry, people dream more about food and eating - this demonstrates the motivational state's influence on cognition during sleep. This aligns with drive-reduction theory and the continuity hypothesis of dreaming. The other options contradict research findings.

Acupuncture's pain-relieving effects are mediated by the release of endorphins - the body's natural painkillers. Research shows that naloxone (an endorphin antagonist) can block acupuncture's analgesic effects, supporting this mechanism. Sensory adaptation (A) refers to diminished sensitivity to constant stimuli. Physiological nystagmus (B) is involuntary eye movement. Perceptual defense (C) involves delayed recognition of threatening stimuli.

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory proposes that at each of the 8 stages of life, we face a specific dilemma/crisis that must be resolved (e.g., trust vs mistrust in infancy, identity vs role confusion in adolescence). Freud focused on psychosexual stages, Kohlberg on moral development stages, and Coleman on social theory. Erikson is the correct theorist for psychosocial dilemmas.