Child Development Test - 2

Retrieval is the final step in the memory process, which follows the sequence: Encoding (taking in information) → Storage (maintaining information) → Retrieval (accessing stored information). Storage comes before retrieval, encoding is the initial step, and attention is a prerequisite but not a step in the memory process itself.

Organization in memory refers to the process of grouping related items into meaningful categories or chunks to improve recall. This is a fundamental memory strategy. Selection refers to choosing what to attend to, rehearsal involves repeating information to maintain it, and mystification is not a recognized memory term.

Piaget theorized that young children (in the preoperational stage) lack the cognitive sophistication required for lying, which necessitates theory of mind - understanding that others have different knowledge and beliefs. Vygotsky focused on social learning, Ceci on intellectual development, and Wellman on theory of mind development but not specifically this claim about lying.

Sensorimotor play involves infants exploring objects through direct physical interaction to understand their properties. Banging objects to produce sound is classic sensorimotor behavior. Language play involves vocal experimentation, pretend play involves imaginative scenarios, and attention-seeking behavior is goal-oriented communication.

Understanding language is a social factor affecting suggestibility because how instructions or questions are phrased can influence responses. Speed of encoding and use of scripts/mnemonics are cognitive strategies, not social factors. Social factors involve external influences from other people or the social context.

Research shows that between ages 2-4, girls engage more frequently in dressing up activities (part of pretend play), while boys prefer more physically active play like transportation toys, ball games, and rough-and-tumble. These reflect early gender differences in play preferences.

The encoding-storage-retrieval model follows the information-processing approach, which conceptualizes the mind as a computer-like system that processes information through distinct stages. Behaviourism focuses on observable behavior, empiricism on sensory experience, and nativism on innate knowledge.

Siblings provide children with unique social experiences - learning negotiation, conflict resolution, perspective-taking, and cooperation - which are fundamental to developing social competence. While companionship and competition occur, the key developmental contribution is the breadth of social experience siblings provide.

Personality traits are defined as relatively stable dispositions to behave in particular ways across different situations and time periods. They are consistent, not changing over time (eliminating A), and they produce predictable patterns, not unpredictable ones (eliminating C).

Piaget proposed that young children's moral reasoning is heteronomous - governed by respect for authority and strict adherence to rules. They focus on consequences rather than intentions, and obedience to adults is paramount. Moral realism, not concern for others' feelings or intentions, characterizes this stage.

Adolescents develop increased perceptual flexibility - the ability to see multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously. This includes recognizing both components and the whole in complex figures. This contrasts with younger children who tend to focus on one aspect. The ability to perceive mealtimes at flexible times relates to adaptability, not perceptual flexibility.

In Lewin's field theory, valences are the positive or negative forces (attractive or repulsive) that propel individuals toward or away from goals within their life space. These psychological forces create motivation. Life events are external occurrences, people magnets is not Lewinian terminology, and balances refers to equilibrium states.

Stage 4 of Kohlberg's moral development theory is called the 'Law and Order' stage. At this level, individuals focus on maintaining social order through obedience to laws, rules, and authority figures. They believe rules are necessary for society to function and should be followed regardless of specific circumstances.

G. Stanley Hall, often called the father of developmental psychology, first described adolescence as a period of 'storm and stress' in his 1904 work. He viewed this developmental phase as inherently turbulent, characterized by emotional instability and conflict.

Reversibility is the mental operation that allows a person to mentally reverse a series of steps or transformations. For example, understanding that if water is poured from a wide glass into a tall thin glass, pouring it back returns it to the original state. This is a key cognitive achievement in concrete operational thought.

Vocabulary shows significant growth during adolescence as individuals encounter increasingly complex texts, academic material, and social contexts. While comprehension also develops, vocabulary expansion is particularly pronounced during this period as abstract thinking matures.

During puberty, relationships with parents undergo significant restructuring as adolescents seek greater autonomy and independence. While personality, emotions, and behavior also change, the parent-child dynamic typically shows the most dramatic shift as adolescents renegotiate boundaries and establish separate identities.

Erik Erikson was the first to systematically study and theorize about personal and social identity development during adolescence. His concept of 'identity versus role confusion' as the central crisis of adolescence established identity formation as a key developmental task of this period.

Learning in psychology is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. All three components are essential: it must involve behavioral change, be relatively lasting (not temporary), and be caused by experience rather than maturation or injury.

The Plowden Report (1967), officially titled 'Children and their Primary Schools,' was a landmark UK government report that advocated for child-centered, progressive education approaches. It emphasized following children's developmental stages and interests rather than rigid academic instruction.

According to Piaget, when preoperational children with egocentric perspectives interact, their conflicting views create cognitive disequilibrium. This social conflict forces them to consider different perspectives, which stimulates decentration - the ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously.

An unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned, innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, salivating to food is a UCR - it occurs automatically without prior learning. The key is that neither the stimulus nor the response requires conditioning.

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning when he noticed dogs salivating at the sight of laboratory attendants who typically fed them, not just at the food itself. This observation - that a neutral stimulus (attendants) could trigger the same response as the food itself - led to his groundbreaking experiments on conditioned reflexes.

Classical conditioning mechanisms have been shown to influence diverse phenomena including immune responses (resistance to disease), allergic reactions, and sexual arousal. Through associative learning, neutral stimuli can trigger physiological responses across these domains, demonstrating conditioning's broad applicability beyond simple reflexes.