The Problem of Other Minds in Indian Philosophy

The problem of intersubjectivity refers to the difficulty of knowing that other people have minds and experiences similar to our own.

Nāgārjuna's theory of 'Anātman' or 'no-self' challenges the idea of a permanent, unchanging self and suggests that the mind is a collection of impermanent mental states.

Vasubandhu argues that we can infer the existence of other minds based on their behavior and actions.

Advaita Vedānta teaches that the individual self (jiva) and the universal Self (Brahman) are ultimately one and the same.

Abhinavagupta, a Kashmiri Shaivite philosopher, proposed that empathy and emotional connection can provide direct access to the minds of others.

The Nyāya school emphasizes the role of inference (anumāna) as the primary means of gaining knowledge, including knowledge about the existence of other minds.

The Mīmāṃsā school relies on testimony (śabda) and communication as the primary means of gaining knowledge, including knowledge about the existence of other minds.

The Vaiśeṣika school posits six categories of substances, including 'mind' (manas), which is the seat of consciousness and mental activity.

Jayanta Bhaṭṭa, a Nyāya philosopher, proposed the concept of 'sympathetic introspection' (anubhava-sāmyavāda), which suggests that we can understand the minds of others by introspecting our own minds and assuming that they have similar experiences.

In Jaina philosophy, 'jīva' refers to the individual soul or consciousness, which is considered to be a real and eternal substance.

Śaṅkara, the founder of Advaita Vedānta, proposed the concept of 'adhyāsa' or 'superimposition', which suggests that the problem of other minds arises from the mistaken superimposition of the self on the not-self.

The Cārvāka school emphasizes the role of perception as the primary source of knowledge, rejecting the validity of inference and testimony.

Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, a Mīmāṃsā philosopher, proposed the concept of 'sādhāraṇa-dharma' or 'common properties', which suggests that we can infer the existence of other minds based on the common properties and behaviors that we share with them.

In Yoga philosophy, 'samādhi' refers to the state of consciousness in which the mind is completely focused and concentrated, leading to a deep meditative state.

Vasubandhu, a Buddhist philosopher, argued that the problem of other minds can be solved through the use of 'anumāna' or 'inference', which allows us to infer the existence of other minds based on their behavior and actions.