The Self and the Universe

The philosophy of self is concerned with the nature of the self, including its relationship to the body, the mind, and the external world.

Descartes famously argued that the essence of the self is the mind, or the thinking thing.

Locke argued that the self is distinct from the body, and that it is the mind that constitutes the self.

Kant argued that the self is both a part of the universe, in that it is subject to the laws of nature, and independent of it, in that it has the capacity for freedom and moral agency.

Hegel argued that the self is both a part of the universe, in that it is a product of the historical process, and independent of it, in that it has the capacity for self-determination.

Schopenhauer argued that the self is a part of the universe, in that it is a manifestation of the universal will.

Nietzsche argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a product of the interplay between the two.

Heidegger argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a being-in-the-world.

Sartre argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a being-in-the-world who is constantly creating and recreating itself.

Merleau-Ponty argued that the self is both a part of the universe, in that it is embodied, and independent of it, in that it has the capacity for reflection and self-awareness.

Levinas argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a being-for-the-other.

Foucault argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a product of discourse and power relations.

Butler argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a product of performative acts.

Žižek argued that the self is neither a part of the universe nor independent of it, but rather a product of the symbolic order.