Momentum and Newton's Laws

A fully reflecting sail experiences twice the radiation pressure of a fully absorbing sail because the photon momentum change is double (p to -p instead of p to 0).

The de Broglie relation states that the momentum p of a photon is equal to Planck's constant h divided by the wavelength lambda.

According to the impulse-momentum theorem, impulse is defined as the change in momentum of an object.

Impulse is defined as the product of the average force applied to an object and the time interval over which it acts.

Newton's 3rd law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction acting on different bodies. The rocket and gas pair represents two objects exerting forces on each other, whereas the other options describe forces acting on a single object.

Newton's 2nd law defines force as the rate of change of momentum (F = dp/dt). This is the most fundamental form of the law.

Momentum (p) is a vector quantity because it is the product of mass (a scalar) and velocity (a vector). Therefore, p and v are vectors, while m is a scalar.

Momentum is defined as the product of an object's mass and its velocity, expressed by the formula p = mv.

Inertia is the resistance of an object to changes in its state of motion. Mass is the quantitative measure of this inertia.

Inertia is defined as the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion, as described by Newton's 1st law.