Changes to Earth's surface

The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus, which is the actual point of origin of the earthquake within the crust.

Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that travel slower than primary waves and cannot propagate through liquids, meaning they cannot pass through the Earth's liquid outer core.

Surface waves (L-waves or Love waves) travel along the Earth's surface rather than through the interior. Because they are the slowest, they have more time to build up amplitude and cause the most destruction.

The focus (or hypocenter) is the specific location within the Earth where the rock rupture begins and seismic energy is first released.

Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that travel the fastest through the Earth's interior, arriving at seismic stations before any other waves.

A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. When stress builds up and the rock breaks, movement along the fault causes an earthquake.

When rocks break or slip along a fault, the stored elastic energy is released in the form of seismic waves that travel through the Earth.

Permeability refers to how easily water can move through soil. If soil has too little permeability, water cannot drain, leading to waterlogged conditions that can drown plant roots.

If soil has too much permeability, water passes through it too quickly. This prevents the soil from retaining enough moisture for plants and can leach away essential nutrients.

Soil is a complex mixture consisting of weathered rock particles (minerals), organic matter (humus), air, and water, which together support plant life.

A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the soil that shows the different layers, or horizons, from the surface down to the underlying bedrock.

Humus is the dark, organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of leaves, plant material, and animal remains.

Topsoil is the uppermost layer of soil, which is typically rich in organic matter (humus) and nutrients, making it the most fertile layer for plant growth.

Permeability is the measure of the ability of a porous material, like soil, to allow fluids to pass through it.

A soil horizon is a distinct layer in the soil profile with different physical and chemical properties from adjacent layers. Humus is organic material, permeability is a property, and 'soli profile' appears to be a typo.

Glaciers form from the accumulation of snow that persists over years, compacting into ice. Water falling on snow (rain) typically accelerates melting rather than contributing to glacier formation.

Glaciers move primarily due to gravity and the pressure of their own weight. Water currents are features of oceans or rivers, not the mechanism for glacial movement.

A delta is a landform created at the mouth of a river where the flow slows down and deposits the sediment it has been carrying.

Glacial till is the unsorted mixture of rocks, sand, and clay that is deposited directly by a glacier as it melts and retreats.

Outwash plains are broad, flat areas formed by sediment deposited by meltwater streams flowing from the front of a glacier. Moraines are ridges of unsorted debris deposited directly by glacial ice, not by meltwater.

Moraines are accumulations of dirt and rocks that have been pushed along by a glacier as it moves. They are essentially the debris left behind when the ice melts or retreats.

Glacial erratics are large boulders that differ in composition from the local bedrock, having been transported and deposited by a glacier. They are left behind when the ice melts.

The terminus is the end or margin of a glacier, where ice melting approximately equals ice accumulation. Moraines are debris ridges, erratics are isolated boulders, and deltas are river deposits.