Bryophytes: Funaria and Moss Characteristics - Class XI

Zygotes do not undergo reduction division immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte. The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from it. Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid spores. So, the correct option is "A" (Funaria).

The main plant body of a bryophyte like Funaria is the gametophyte, which is haploid (n).

Rhizoids are part of the gametophyte (n=20). The sporophyte structures (calyptra is gametophytic tissue, but theca and foot are sporophytic 2n) have different ploidy. However, in Funaria, the calyptra is haploid (n=20), while theca and foot are diploid (2n=40).

Archegonia are the female sex organs found in bryophytes, pteridophytes, and gymnosperms. Among the choices, Funaria is a bryophyte.

In Funaria, the rhizoids are multicellular, branched, and possess oblique septa.

Bryophytes like Funaria require water for the flagellated sperm (antherozoids) to swim to the archegonium for fertilization.

There are two different developmental stages of the gametophyte: the Protonema, and the gametophore. The Protonema is the first part of the moss that develops from the germinating spore.

Funaria is known as common moss or green moss. The plant body is foliose that consists of stem axis which bears many leaves and instead of roots, rhizoids are present. It is gametophytic (n) and independent. It bears antheridia and archegonia on the same plant but on different branches.

After many years of vegetative growth sex organs develop on Cycas sporophytes in the form of cones or strobili. Cycas is dioecious i.e. male cone and female cone (lax) born on separate sporophytes. The male sporophyte is heterogametic having sex chromosomes-XY while the female sporophyte is homogametic having sex chromosomes-XX.

Funaria is known as common moss or green moss or cord moss. The main plant body of Funaria is gametophyte and is of two forms.

(1) Juvenile form (creeping protonema).

(2) Adult form (leafy gametophore).

It is characterized by filamentous setae, a gibbous obtusely pyriform capsule, and usually a double peristome of 16 teeth. Clorella, Volvox and Spirulina belongs to the phylum Algae (Thallophyta).

The sporogonium in Funaria develops at the apex of the female shoot (gametophore) after fertilization.

Sphagnum do  not decay readily because of the phenolic compounds embedded in the moss's cell walls. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up cations, such as calcium and magnesium and releasing hydrogen ions. Due to presence of hyaline cells, they have the large water-holding capacity.

The moss sporophyte is completely dependent upon the gametophyte for its nutrition. The sporophyte is responsible for producing spores.

The apical portion of the capsule is specialised to regulate spore discharge. It matures into operculum and peristome at maturity, the operculum falls exposing the underlying peristome, which surrounds the mouth of the dehiscent capsule.

The Funaria plants are monoecious and autoecious, i.e., male (antheridia, club shaped) and female (archegonia, flask shaped) reproductive organs are produced on, the same plant but on different branches. 

The terms, 'caulonema' and 'chloronema' for protonema of Funaria were given by Bopp. Bopp (1961) found that the caulonema stage, and thus the bud stage, can be delayed by low temperature, submersion, or low light.

• Moss peat is decayed dried sphagnum moss. It is hygroscopic, i.e. it has the ability to hold water either by absorption or adsorption. Its use as packing material for sending flowers and live plants to distant places helps to keep flowers and plants fresh.
• Hence Moss peat is used as a packing material and for sending flowers and live plants to distant places because it is hygroscopic.
• So, the correct answer is 'Hygroscopic'.

Bryophytes are composed of true parenchyma derived from three-dimensional growth usually from an apical meristem. Stems in mosses are multicellular and can show a surprising amount of tissue differentiation depending on the species of moss. Typically,  most mosses have cortical cells (also called parenchyma cells) that compose much of the stem, and thick walled cells, for structural support.

In Mosses, column of cells running up the middle of the sterile jacket is called as columella.

In Funaria, rhizoid contains 10 chromosome, then number of chromosome in seta, leaf and calyptra are respectively 20, 10 and 10. The number of chromosomes in leaf and calyptra wil be the same as the rhizoid but the number of chromosomes in seta will be 2n that is double the number of chromosomes present in the rhizoids.

The protonema is an elongate, thread-like structure that develops from the germinated spore of mosses. The protonemal stage is the best-studied part of bryophyte development. 

Moss gametophytes are either erect or extensively branched prostrate plants, that consist of an axis (commonly called a stem) bearing spirally arranged leaf-like appendages (usually referred to as leaves); more often than not, they are anchored to the substratum by branched multicellular filaments called rhizoids. The leafy shoot of mosses is haploid and thus part of the gametophyte generation. Liverworts and Hornworts have dorsiventrally flattened plant body. 

Ferns and moss are both examples of primitive plants. They are flowerless or seedless plants. Fern and Funaria both are flowerless and seedless.

In Funaria, the spore germinates to form a protonema (a filamentous structure) before developing into the leafy gametophore, which is considered indirect germination.

Funaria (a moss) produces a protonema stage in its life cycle, whereas Marchantia (a liverwort) does not.

Sporophyte of moss differentiates into foot, seta and capsule. The foot embedded in the female receptacle and absorbs inorganic nutrients. Seta is a long stalk with a pear-shaped capsule by its tip. Capsule has 3 parts-basal apophysis, central theca and terminal operculum.

The zygote, which develops into the sporophyte, is formed and begins its development within the venter of the archegonium.

Funaria is a bryophyte and lacks true vascular tissues, including true roots, stems, and leaves. Pteridium is a pteridophyte and possesses true roots.

The capsule of the Funaria sporophyte contains an apophysis region which possesses stomata for gas exchange.

In the life cycle of Funaria, two distinct individuals occur. One of these is haploid and is the independent leafy plant. The other is diploid, leafless sporogonium. It is partially dependent on the leafy gametophyte for its nutrition.

Funaria is both monoecious and autoecious. The antheridium (male sex organ) are born on different heads of the same plant. Hence, it is both autoecious and monoecious.

Sex organs in Funaria develop at the tip of gametophore since the plant itself constitutes the gametophytic phase. After fertilization develops the capsule from which protonema develops from the spores that dehisces from the capsule. The capsule constitutes the sporophytic phase. The plant shows an alternation of generation, between the sporophytic and gametophytic phase.

The mature sporophyte of Funaria is much more complex than that of the liverworts. It is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. The foot forms the basal portion of sporophyte. The seta is a long cylinder reddish brown, stalk-like structure. It carries the capsule at its top and raises it more than an inch above the apex of the leafy gametophore.

In Funaria, fertilization occurs, as in other Bryophytes, when the plants are wet with rain or dew. The apical cell of the antheridium, which forms operculum absorbs water and bursts. The spirally coiled bi-flagellate antherozoids escape from antheridium, while still enclosed within a vesicle. The vesicle eventually dissolves in water and the antherozoids are set free. They reach the archegonial cluster.

Funaria is monoecious and autoecious i.e., male and female reproductive structures develop on different branches of the same plant. Monoecious means both male and female sex organs are borne on the same plant body.

The diploid sporophyte or sporogonium reproduces by spores and represents the asexual generation. The mature sporophyte of Funaria is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. 

Antheridia are borne in groups at the expanded convex apex of the antherdiophore. The archegonial branches arise laterally at the base of the male branch. Achegonia are borne in groups at the apex of these branches.

The peristome lies immediately below the operculum. It consists of two overlapping rings of periostomial teeth, which is long, conical teeth, one within the other. There are sixteen teeth in each set. The teeth of both the sets are on the same radii and thus opposite to each other.

The life cycle of Funaria is haplo-diplontic type. In the life cycle free living haploid gametophyte alternates with a semiparastitic diploid sporogonium (Sporophyte). In this type alternation of generations is called as heteromorphic or heterologous. In Funaria the main plant body is free-living gametophyte (n) which exist in 2 forms i.e. protonema (juvenile gametophyte) and leafy gametophore (adult gametophyte). The leafy gametophyte is the dominant phase of Funaria as the vegetative body of itself is represented by these leafy gametophores. It has two distinct growth stages, a prostrate filamentous alga-like protonema and an upright gametophore.

Apophysis is the solid, somewhat swollen basal, green photosynthetic portion of the capsule. It is sterile in nature. It also helps in conduction of water and food materials. It gradually narrows down into seta; hence it is also called as the neck of the capsule. Internally the apophysis is covered by epidermis. In capsule of Funaria stomata present only in apophysis.

A mature archegonium has a long columnar stalk, a swollen venter and an elongated neck. The wall of the venter is two layered, but that of neck is single layered consisting of cells arranged in six rows. The neck encloses an axial row of six or more neck canal cells. Neck consists of 6 or more neck canal cells (6-11).

In moss, when the mature capsule begins to dry up, the thin walled cells of the annulus break and the operculum is thrown away. Dropping off the operculum is assisted by the outward hygroscopic movement of the underlying peristomial teeth. Due to this movement, slits between the inner thin walled peristomial teeth become wider and spores escape gradually through these slits. In a wet atmosphere, the wet peristomial teeth bend inwards and thus closing the slits and prevent the escape of spores. The seta of the mature sporophyte also exhibits hygroscopic movements. In dry weather, by loosing water, it twists and bents, thus helping in dispersal of spores. The sporogonium of Funaria is photosynthetic, hence semi-parasitic on gametophore. It differentiates into foot, seta and capsule. The foot embedded in the female receptacle and absorbs inorganic nutrients.

Vegetative propagation in Funaria takes place by various methods like- fragmentation of the primary protonema, secondary protonema, gemmae, bulbils, apospory.

In Funaria, stomata are absent in leaf and is present in capsule (apophysis). Internally the apophysis is covered by epidermis. The epidermis is interrupted by stomata, which leads into air space below, called as the sub stomatal cavity. Within the epidermis is a broad spongy zone of sterile cells, rich in chloroplasts. There are distinct intercellular spaces between these cells. Stomata in present only in the apophysis, which is present at the basal part of the capsule.

The spores of Funaria are 12 - 20 microns in diameter, and represent the first cell of the gametophytic generation. The spore wall consists of two layers, the outer smooth and brown coloured exosporium, and the inner colourless endosporium. The cytoplasm of spore is rich in oil globules and chloroplasts. The spore germinates under favourble conditions. The exospore is ruptured and the endospore produces a papilla. It soon forms a long filamentous protonema. The protonema shows apical growth and forms two types of branches, the chloronemal branches and the rhizoidal branches.

In Funaria, the spore mother cells are the last structures of the sporophyte generation. They differentiate by meiosis into spores, which are haploid. The spores are, therefore, the first structures of the next gametophyte generation.

The sporophyte of Funaria starts developing within the archaegonia. The sex organs, antheridia and archegonia develop at the apices of seprate erect branches, called as gametophores. In the archaegonium the sporophyte is formed. A mature archegonium is flask shaped, which is borne on short stalk. It has a basal swollen part of venter and elongated neck. The venter is surrounded by a two layered jacket, whereas the jacket around the neck is singled layered. 

In Funaria, the androcyte mother cells divide diagonally and each forms two androcytes. The latter differentiate into biflagellate antherozoids. 

Rhizoids are branched, slender and multicellular. They are stout, brown, almost cable like and form the main anchoring strands. The rhizoids are colourless in the young stage, but become red or brown at maturity. The rhizoidal branches have oblique cross walls and grow down into soil. They help in anchorage and absorption.

The peristome lies immediately below the operculum. It consists of two sets of long, conical teeth, one within the other. There are sixteen teeth in each set. The teeth of both the sets are on the same radii and thus opposite to each other.

When the mature capsule begins to dry up the thin walled cells of the annulus break and the operculum is thrown away. Dropping off the operculum is assisted by the outward hygroscopic movement of the underlying peristomial teeth. Due to this movement, slits between the inner thin walled peristomial teeth become wider and spores escape gradually through these slits. In a wet atmosphere, the wet peristomial teeth bend inwards and thus closing the slits and prevent the escape of spores. The seta of the mature sporophyte also exhibits hygroscopic movements. In dry weather, by loosing water, it twists and bents, thus helping in dispersal of spores.

Elaters are present in hepaticopsida (marchantia). Pseudoelators are present in Anthocerotopsida, and elaters are absent in Bryopsida. As funaria belongs to Bryopsida, do not have elaters.

Spore is the first cell of gametophytic generation. On a suitable damp habitat, a meiospore of Funaria germinates into a filamentous green alga-like structure called protonema. Protonema has green epiterranean chloronemal branches (chlornema) and non-green subterranean rhizoidal branches (caulonema). The protonema of moss, represents the juvenile stage of gametophyte. 

A female gametangium of bryophyte differ from fungus multicellular sex organs surround by a single layered jacket of sterile cells.

The haploid phase in the life cycle of Funaria is represented by independent leafy gametophyte. The gametophyte is developed from the spore.

The stem and leaves of Funaria are analogous to those of angiosperms because they perform similar functions (support and photosynthesis) but have different evolutionary origins and structures.

The sporogonium of Funaria is attached to the gametophyte and derives water and minerals from it, though it can perform some photosynthesis.

Protonema is a characteristic juvenile filamentous stage in the life cycle of mosses like Funaria. Riccia is a liverwort, Dryopteris is a fern, and Spirogyra is an alga.

The sporophyte of mosses, which consists of foot, seta, and capsule, is technically referred to as a sporogonium. Sporangium is a general term for a spore-producing structure.

In Funaria, the antheridial head contains sterile, club-shaped hairs known as paraphyses. These help in protection and water retention for the antheridia.

The structures in Funaria are called stem-like and leaf-like because they lack true vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and belong to the gametophytic generation, not the sporophytic generation typical of vascular plants.

The protonema is the first stage of the moss gametophyte, which develops directly from a germinating spore. It is characteristically green, filamentous, and branched.

The archegonium of Funaria typically possesses a long neck containing a series of neck canal cells, usually numbering between 6 and 10.

The fusion of male and female gametes results in a zygote. While terms like oospore are sometimes used in specific botanical contexts, zygote is the standard biological term for the product of fertilization.

Bryophyte sperms (antherozoids) are biflagellate and typically curved or spirally coiled. Option B is the standard description for Funaria.

In bryophytes, the sporophyte is physically attached to and nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte throughout its life.

The rhizoids of Funaria are multicellular, branched, and possess oblique septa, which is a key diagnostic feature distinguishing them from other bryophyte rhizoids.

Funaria is a bryophyte and lacks true roots (it has rhizoids), whereas Selaginella is a pteridophyte and possesses true roots.

Meiosis in Funaria occurs within the capsule inside the spore mother cells to produce haploid spores.

The peristome in Funaria consists of two rings of 16 teeth each, totaling 32 teeth.

Funaria is monoecious (both sex organs on the same plant) and autoicous (sex organs on different branches of the same plant).

Funaria is anchored by multicellular, branched rhizoids that feature oblique septa.

The columella is a central, sterile column of tissue within the capsule of the Funaria sporophyte.

The peristome of Funaria consists of two concentric rings, each containing 16 teeth, for a total of 32 teeth.

• In the majority of bryophytes, embryonic sporophytes elongate gradually to form a foot and a spore-bearing capsule. Calyptra is an enlarged archegonial venter in bryophyte that protects the capsule containing the embryonic sporophyte.
• Columella is a column of sterile tissues which extends through the theca and are surrounded by spore-producing cells. Antheridium is the male sex organ of algae, fungi, ferns, and other nonflowering plants

Funaria spores contain chloroplasts, which allow them to begin photosynthesis immediately upon germination.

Spores are the first cells of the gametophytic generation in the moss life cycle, as they are haploid and germinate to form the protonema.

In Funaria, the rhizoids develop from the basal region of the gametophytic axis.

Acrocarpous mosses have their sex organs at the tips of the main axis or primary branches, leading to an upright growth habit.

The peristome is a characteristic structure found around the mouth of the capsule in mosses like Funaria, aiding in spore dispersal.

The sporophyte of Funaria is partially independent because it contains chlorophyll in the apophysis, allowing for some photosynthesis, though it remains dependent on the gametophyte for water and minerals.

The protonema is part of the gametophytic generation, which is haploid. The capsule, columella, and seta are parts of the sporophytic generation, which is diploid.

The annulus is a ring of specialized cells located between the operculum (the lid) and the theca (the main body of the capsule), which helps in the dehiscence of the capsule.

In bryophytes like Funaria, the zygote develops into the sporophyte while remaining within the archegonium. The archegonium provides protection and nourishment during the early stages of development.

Funaria is a bryophyte, which lacks true roots, stems, and leaves; it uses rhizoids for anchorage. Pteridium is a pteridophyte, which possesses true vascular tissues including roots, stems, and leaves.

In Funaria archegonia, there are multiple neck canal cells, not just two. The other statements correctly describe the sporophyte's semi-parasitic nature, the endothecial origin of spores, and the protonema stage.

The spores of Funaria are generally viable for a longer period than one year. The other statements regarding stomata in the capsule epidermis, the thickness of the spore sac, and the presence of trabeculae are correct.

The primary protonema is a characteristic juvenile stage in the life cycle of mosses, such as Funaria. It develops directly from the germinating spore.

Funaria is monoecious, meaning both male (antheridia) and female (archegonia) sex organs are produced on the same plant body, though often on different branches.

Ferns (pteridophytes) and Funaria (bryophytes) reproduce via spores rather than seeds. Ficus, Punica, and Pinus are seed-producing plants (spermatophytes).

In bryophytes like Funaria, the gametophyte is the dominant, independent, and photosynthetic phase. The sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte for nutrition.

Sporophyte of Funaria has embedded foot, an elongated curved seta and a terminal pyriforrn capsule. Sporophyte is nutritionally dependent on gametophyte.

Mosses occupy a wide range of habitats. Mosses are typically found in moist environments although most species can withstand prolonged periods of desiccation. In terrestrial ecosystems, Mosses are important in preventing soil erosion. Numerous species of Moss are found in fresh water but there are no salt water species.

Funaria exhibits gametophytic (n) as well as sporophytic (2n) generation in its life cycle. The gametophytic (haploid) generation is represented by a short-lived protonema which produces spermatozoids in antheridium of male shoot and egg in archegonium of the female shoot.

Peristome (exposed) plays an important role in the dispersal of spores. The peristome teeth by their hygroscopic movements help in the discharge of the spores. The inner peristome simply functions as a sieve. The spores are liberated in the dry weather and are carried out by air.

In Funaria, spore has small irregular mitochondria, numerous chloroplasts with poorly developed lamellae, small sparsely present dictyosomes and ER in the form of highly convoluted tubules near the plasma membrane.

The mature sporophyte of Funaria is much more complex than that of the liverworts. It is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. The foot forms the basal portion of sporophyte. It is a small, dagger-like conical structure embedded in the tissue of the tip of the leafy female branch and functions both as an anchorage and an absorbing organ. The seta is a long cylinder but tough, reddish brown, stalk-like structure. It carries the capsule at its top and raises it more than an inch above the apex of the leafy gametophore. The capsule is a highly organized structure. It is pear-shaped and green at first but later turns yellow, and then orange. Its upper portion is covered by a conical hood or a cap, the calyptra. At maturity, the calyptra falls off laying bare its apex. 

Sphagnum has no seta. In Sphagnum and other basal mosses, the sporophyte is raised by the pseudopodium, a structure produced by the parent gametophyte.  

The sporophytes of mosses, like those of the liverworts, consist of a foot, seta and capsule and remain permanently attached to the gametophytes. At the tip of the capsule is a lid (operculum) which, prior to spore dissemination, falls away exposing the so-called peristome teeth, a set of structures, often delicate and thread-like in appearance, that form a ring around the mouth (rim) of the capsule. The peristome teeth are perhaps the most characteristic feature of the mosses; usually composed of cell wall remnants, they respond to changes in the humidity of the atmosphere. When a moss first grows from the spore, it grows as a protonema, which develops into a leafy gametophore.

The peristome, which lies immediately below the operculum consists of two sets of long, conical teeth, one within the other. The teeth of both the sets are on the same radii and thus opposite to each other. The tapering distal ends of the teeth of the outer set converge towards each other and are united terminally in a small central disc of tissue. The peristomial teeth are sculptured structures, that close the opening of the spore sac. They are attached at the base of the rim or diaphragm. The outer set of the peristomial teeth are hygroscopic and respond to the changes in humidity. The presence of peristomial teeth guarding the mouth of the theca region slows the rate of spore discharge.

The hygroscopic movement performed due to imbibition of water is called as hydrochasy. E.g., movement in the peristome of moss, elators in eqisetum. 

In Sphagnum, the stems themselves show a greater degree of internal complexity than most other mosses. The stem tissue can be divided into two regions, an inner pith (which may be subdivided into two layers) and an outer cortical layer of larger, usually dead cells. The pith is the site of food production and storage, which the cortical layer functions in water absorption and protection. Located in the cortical layer of many species are retort cells, so named, because they resemble the medieval chemical flasks called retorts. These cells are enlarged more than the surrounding cortical tissue, and have a pore, or opening, at one end. These cells are believed to help the moss retain water under intense sunlight, and they often are home to a wide variety of small invertebrates and other microorganisms.

Ferns and moss are both examples of 'primitive plants'. They have not developed all the specialised systems, that modern plants have, although ferns are more highly developed, than mosses. In mosses, sporophytes lack chlorophyll and depend on photosynthetic gametophyte for food, whereas, in ferns, sporophyte stage has true roots, stem and leaves and does not depend on gametophyte.

Capsule wall surrounds a wide air space. It is traversed by multicellular, narrow, uniseriate, green, elongated filamentous strands, known as trabeculae. Trabeculae connect the chlorenchymatous layer of wall with the spore sac.

In the Funaria capsule, the annulus is a ring of specialized cells located between the operculum (the lid) and the theca (the main body of the capsule). It aids in the dehiscence of the capsule.

In mosses, the spore germinates to form the protonema, which then develops buds that grow into the leafy gametophyte (the gamete-bearing plant).

Funaria possesses a juvenile filamentous autotrophic stage during life cycle, called as protonema. Moss plant (Funaria) develops on protonema as buds, while Marchantia is a liverwort in which distinct protonemal stage is absent.

Sphagnum that generally grows in bogs can absorb large amounts of water i.e., upto 18 times its weight. Therefore, it is extensively used by gardeners to keep seedlings and cut plant parts moist during transportation and propagation. In older times it was also used in place of absorbent cotton.

The gametophytic plant body of mosses are differentiated into prostate, branched filamentous, thalloid protonema and leafy erect gametophore.
Rhizoids are multicellular branched with oblique septa.
Sex organs develop from superficial cells at the apex of leafy gametophyte.
Stomata and chlorophyll are present in gametphyte for gaseous exchange, e.g., Funaria.

Mosses show an advance on some liverworts in that the plant body is differentiated into simple stems and leaves, though it has no roots, rhizoids still being present, but these are multicellular and have oblique septa.
Liverworts and hornworts have dorsiventrally flattened lobed plant body, with unicellular rhizoids.

• A protonema is a thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage (the haploid phase) of a bryophyte (e.g., Funaria) life cycle. When a moss first grows from the spore, it grows as a protonema which develops into a leafy gametophore. 
• Moss spores germinate to form an alga-like filamentous structure called the protonema. It represents juvenile gametophyte. While the protonema is growing by apical cell division, at some stage, under the influence of the phytohormone cytokinin, buds are induced which grow by three-faced apical cells. 
• These give rise to gametophores, stems and leaf-like structures (bryophytes do not have true leaves (megaphyll). These gametophores are the adult form of the gametophyte. 
• Protonema are characteristic of all mosses and some liverworts but is absent from hornworts. The protonema is also the photosynthetic part of a germinating fern spore.

Funaria (bryophyte), Dryopteris (pteridophyte), and Ginkgo (gymnosperm) all produce archegonia as their female reproductive organ. They differ significantly in vascular tissue and the independence of their sporophyte/gametophyte generations.

Funaria is an acrocarpous moss, meaning the sporophyte develops at the apex of the main gametophyte shoot. This is a characteristic feature of the genus.

androcyte mother cells are formed from the division and re-division of the primary androgonial cell. Each androcyte mother cell divides to form two andro­cytes. The androcytes transform into biflagellate antherozoids or sperms.