Kerala, from eighth to eighteenth century - class-IX

The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. Many Kudis constituted the Ur. The chief of Ur was called Uralar.

After the end of the Perumal rule in the beginning of the 12th century, the Naduvazhis came in to force. Basically Naduvazhis means the territorial divisions which consisted of nadus further ruled by naduvazhis, which were divided into desams ruled by desavazhis who were directly under naduvazhis and subject to their dictation.

Perumals had representatives called Koyiladhikarikal. In the matters of administration the Perumals were assisted by Naluthali, the council of Bramhins. Perumals had a militia called Ayiram (Thousand). Perumals levied taxes from the Nadus, Nagaras (towns), Brahmin Gramas, temples, etc.

The nadus were the places where the people established their agricultural settlement and consisted of numerous kudis and Urs. The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. Many kudis constituted the Ur.

The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. The chief of Kudi was Kudipathi.

Kerala was a part of the ancient Tamilakam, ruled by the Moovendars. A kingdom based at Mahodayapuram was established by the 9th century CE. The rulers of the kingdom were known as Perumals.  The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas in Kerala were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

Devaswam - The land under the control of temples. Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralar.

The Nadus were the places where the people established their agricultural settlement and consisted of numerous Kudis and Urs. Many Urs constituted a Nadu and many Urs constituted a Nadu.

Vattezhuthu was indeed a script used in Kerala for writing Tamil and Malayalam from the 2nd to the 8th century.

The rights over the land passed on from one generation
to another and became a birthright. This kind of land
came to be known as Janmam Land and the people who
had the ownership right over those lands as Janmis.

The Medieval period of Kerala begins with the later Chera rulers who established their rule with Mahodayapuram as their capital. The Medieval period continued till the year 1792 AD when Kerala was brought under the British rule after the defeat in the Anglo-Mysore war. 

The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. Sthanu Ravi was a Perumal who controlled all Nadus of Kerala.

The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. Rajasekharan, Sthanu Ravi, Kotakota Kerala Kesari, Adhithyan Kota, Ramakulasekharan were some Perumal rulers who ruled during 800-1122 CE with Mahodayapuram as their capital.

The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. Many Kudis constituted the Ur.

 The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. All the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals, thus creating a centralised rule in Kerala for the first time. Rajasekharan, Sthanu Ravi, Kotakota Kerala Kesari, Adhithyan Kota, Ramakulasekharan were some Perumal rulers who ruled during 800-1122 CE with Mahodayapuram as their capital.

Mahodayapuram was the capital of Chera dynasty from where they ruled the kingdom. It was also an important trade centre during the later Chera period. At present, it is geographically located in Southern part of Kerala and is known by the name Kodungallur in the Thrissur district. 

The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. All the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals, thus creating a centralised rule in Kerala for the first time.

The Perumals ruled Kerala during 800-1122 CE with their capital at Mahodayapuram. The Perumals had royal representatives called Koyiladhikarikal.

Nadus appreared in the Kerala to denote the land where cultivation of multiple crops and paddy took place. These Nadus later included different workmen settling in these regions which led to exchange of good and commodities. Nadus thus became popular agricultural settlements. Today, generally Nadu is associated with the native village of Kerala. 

The centralized rule of the Perumals came to an end by 12th century CE. The Nadus became independent. The positions of power that eventually developed in the Nadus were known as Naduvazhi Swaroopams.

In the year 1799, Tipu Sultan was killed during the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in defending his capital, Srirangapatna.  The Nawab of Carnatic provided help to the Europeans and hence, the East India Company army with the support of Nizam of Hyderabad were successful in defeating Tipu Sultan.

After the end of the centralized rule of the Perumals, the Nadus were free and the positions of power that developed in the Nadus were known as Naduvazhi Swaroopams. The Swaroopams were the ruling families with the right of self-rule and they followed matrilineal system of inheritance called Marumakkathayam.

The Swaroopams had their own military. Arisippadijanam of Venadu, Padamalanayanmar of Kolathu Nadu and Lokaru of Nediyiruppu were such armies.

Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were the Mysore sultans who marched to Kerala. They ruled Malabar between 1766 and 1792.

By the second half of the 18th century the Sultans of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan marched towards Kerala and led military campaigns which created frenzy among the Naduvazhis of northern Kerala. Nediyiruppu, Kola and other smaller Swaroopams quickly came under the Mysore Sultans. Thus, fearing the attack from Mysore Sultans many Naduvazhis and Desavazhis fled to Venadu.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the Naduvazhis was called Cherikkal.

Marthandavarma was instrumental in leading the province of Venadu into modernity. It was under him that Travancore became a modern state. Marthandavarma developed Travancore into a strong princely state in the 18th century by bringing out many administrative reforms and strengthening its militia.

The Perumals ruled Kerala during 800-1122 CE with their capital at Mahodayapuram. Perumals had a militia called Ayiram which means Thousand in Malayalam.

The Perumals ruled Kerala during 800-1122 CE with their capital at Mahodayapuram. They levied taxes from the Nadus, Nagaras (towns), Brahmin Gramas, temples, etc.

Vattezhuthu was a very popular alphabetic
system in Kerala from 9th to 14th centuries.
It was mostly inscribed on rocks or copper
plates. Vattezhuthu was prevalent in Tamil
Nadu as well.

Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralar . The rulers, Brahmins or the people of the temple did not directly cultivate in this land. They used to give the land for cultivation to middle men called, Karalar . Accordingly a power hierarchy was formed with Naduvazhis at the top, and Ooralars and Karalars below them.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the temples was called Devaswam.

Vattezhuthu script is the oldest of the available scripts in Malayalam. It was a proto-Tamil typescript which was the most prevalent script in Kerala during the Medieval period. This is mainly because a lot of official work and trade-related activities were documented in Tamil in the Medieval period.  However, the script couldn't help in writing Sanskrit. 

The history of ancient Kerala was an integral part of Tamilakam till the 8th century CE. The period between the 8th and the 18th century is considered as the Medieval period of Kerala. Many political, social and economic changes took place during this period.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the Brahmins was called Brahmaswam.

The most important source of information about the nadus of Kerala was the Vattezhuthu documents. It was a very popular alphabetic system in Kerala from 9th to 14th centuries. It was mostly inscribed on rocks or copper plates.

Of the available Malayalam scripts, Vattezhuthu is the most ancient script. Devoid of consonants, this script is transformed from Brahmi Script, the most ancient script of India. The Vattezhuthu script system was also known as 'Naanam Monam'.

Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralar . The rulers, Brahmins or the people of the temple did not directly cultivate in this land. They used to give the land for cultivation to middle men called, Karalar.

The Tarisappalli plate is written in the Vattezhuthu script which was prevalent in Kerala during the medieval period. From this document, we get the information about land donation to Tarisappali of Kollam town by the ruler of Venadu, Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal during the fifth regnal year of Sthanu Ravi, the Perumal who controlled all Nadus of Kerala.

The positions of power that eventually developed in the Nadus after the Perumals were known as Naduvazhi Swaroopams. The Swaroopams were the ruling families with the right of self-rule and they followed matrilineal system of inheritance called Marumakkathayam.

In order to increase their power, the Nadus used to clash with one another and used to join forces against common enemies like the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Swaroopams had their own military. Arisippadijanam of Venadu, Padamalanayanmar of Kolathu Nadu and Lokaru of Nediyiruppu were such armies. By the second half of the 18th century the Sultans of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan marched towards Kerala and led military campaigns which created frenzy among the Naduvazhis of northern Kerala. Thus, fearing the attack from Mysore Sultans many Naduvazhis and Desavazhis fled to Venadu.

Many kudis constituted the Ur. The chief of Ur was called Uralar.

The southernmost Nadu in medieval Kerala was Venad. The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. All the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals.

The nadus were the places where the people established their agricultural settlement and consisted of numerous kudis and Urs. The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. The chief of Kudi was Kudipathi.

The centralized rule of the Perumals came to an end by 12th century CE. The Nadus became independent. The positions of power that eventually developed in the Nadus were known as Naduvazhi Swaroopams. The Swaroopams were the ruling families with the right of self-rule and they followed matrilineal system of inheritance called Marumakkathayam.

The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram which is presently known as Kodungaloor. Rajasekharan, Sthanu Ravi, Kotakota Kerala Kesari, Adhithyan Kota, Ramakulasekharan were some Perumal rulers who ruled during 800-1122 CE with Mahodayapuram as their capital.

The Perumals had a centralised nature of administration. In the matters of administration the Perumals were assisted by Naluthali. Naluthali was a council of Brahmins.

The Kudis were the families of occupational groups engaged in agriculture. The chief of Kudi was Kudipathi.

The northernmost Nadu in medieval Kerala was Kolathunadu. The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. All the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals.

Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralar . The rulers, Brahmins or the people of the temple did not directly cultivate in this land. They used to give the land for cultivation to middle men called, Karalar.

Trade continued through the land route as well as the sea route during the medieval period. Chanthas and Angadies were the major regional trade centers and commodities like paddy, rice, vegetables, betal nut, salt, fish, etc were exchanged. Long distance trade was mainly with Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and constituted rice, chilli, cotton, other cloth materials, silk, and horses. The Arabs, Chinese, Europeans, etc. were the main foreign traders. Black pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, other spices, coconut, etc. were taken from Kerala while Gold, copper, silver, china clay pottery, silk, etc. were brought to Kerala.

During the medieval period, communities engaged in various occupations and these occupations were eventually categorized into castes. Some people engaged in agriculture and the making of agricultural equipments. Some were involved in handicrafts and making of metal equipments while some were involved in weaving and oil production.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the Brahmins was called Brahmaswam.

Farming and agriculture in the medieval times in Kerala was dependent on the south-west monsoon and the north-east monsoon. The south-west monsoon was called Edavapathy and the north-east monsoon was called Thulavarsham.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the temples was called Devaswam.

Chanthas and Angadies were the major regional trade centers of Kerala during the medieval period. Commodities used daily such as paddy, rice, vegetables, betal nut, salt, fish, etc, were the major items exchanged in these centers.

Anjuvannam and Manigramam are the trade guilds existed in medieval Kerala till the 14th century. They were active in both sea and land trade.

The Adiyalars who
used to farm during the medieval times occupied the lowest
rung in the caste hierarchy whereas the Brahmins were at
the top.

The Panayapattam system which was also known as Kanam and
Otti became prevalent after the period of the Perumals. According
to this, the person who took the land on lease (kana kudiyan)
used to give an amount as security to the landlord when he
leased the land for cultivation.

Kerala was a part of the ancient Tamilakam, ruled by the Moovendars. A kingdom based at Mahodayapuram was established by the 9th century CE. The rulers of the kingdom were known as Perumals.  The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas in Kerala were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.
• Aaladiyars were the people who toiled in the soil.

Kerala was a part of the ancient Tamilakam, ruled by the Moovendars. A kingdom based at Mahodayapuram was established by the 9th century CE. The rulers of the kingdom were known as Perumals.  The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas in Kerala were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.
The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.
• Aaladiyars were the people who toiled in the soil.

The purpose of history is to throw light on the past. This is done through discovery and study of historical sources. There are different sources from which history is drawn. They are divided into two parts.

• Literary Sources

1. Religious Literature
2. Secular Literature

• Non-Literary Sources

1. Inscriptions (Epigraphy)
   
2. Coins (Numismatics)
3. Archaeology
4. Account of Foreign Travelers

Inscriptions on copper plates (Epigraphy) are the most important source of history of Medieval Kerala because copper plates with inscriptions were used as official documents. The official documents given by chieftains to temples and tradesmen were mainly on copper plates. 

The copper plates with inscriptions were used as a document in ancient times. The official documents given by the chieftains to temples and tradesmen were mainly on such copper plates. Therisappalli and Jewish copper plates are examples. In some of the plates, the chieftain's reigning period is also recorded.

The Jewish copper plate is a record of the rights sanctioned to Anchuvannam, a group of traders, by Bhaskararavi, a medieval ruler of Kerala based at Mahodayapuram.

Inscriptions on copper plates (Epigraphy) are the most important source of history of Medieval Kerala because copper plates with inscriptions were used as official documents. The official documents given by chieftains to temples and tradesmen were mainly on copper plates. The script used in these inscriptions Vattezhuthu or Kolezhuthu which were the scripts used to write old Malayalam.

Kerala was a part of the ancient Tamilakam, ruled by the Moovendars. A kingdom based at Mahodayapuram was established by the 9th century CE. The rulers of the kingdom were known as Perumals. The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas in Kerala were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.
The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.

The reign of the Perumals came to an end by the 12th century. Consequently, the chieftains, who were the local rulers under the Perumals, began to rule their respective Nadus independently.
The region under the control of a chieftain was known as Swaroopam. The joint family of the chieftain was also known as Swaroopam. The eldest member of the family became the ruler. There were disparities in wealth and military power among the Nadus and the chieftains fought among themselves for power.

The reign of the Perumals came to an end by the 12th century. Consequently, the chieftains, who were the local rulers under the Perumals, began to rule their respective Nadus independently.

The region under the control of a chieftain was known as Swaroopam. The joint family of the chieftain was also known as Swaroopam. The eldest member of the family became the ruler. There were disparities in wealth and military power among the Nadus and the chieftains fought among themselves for power.

The major Swaroopams during the period were Trippappooru Swaroopam in Venad, Perumpadappu Swaroopam in Kochi, Nediyiruppu Swaroopam in Kozhikode, and Kolaswaroopam in Chirakkal.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.
• Aaladiyars were the people who toiled in the soil.

The reign of the Perumals came to an end by the 12th century. Consequently, the chieftains, who were the local rulers under the Perumals, began to rule their respective Nadus independently.

The region under the control of a chieftain was known as Swaroopam. The joint family of the chieftain was also known as Swaroopam. The eldest member of the family became the ruler. There were disparities in wealth and military power among the Nadus and the chieftains fought among themselves for power.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.
The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.
• Aaladiyars were the people who toiled in the soil.

Maritime trade attained tremendous progress during the medieval period. The demand for exported goods increased. This resulted in the increase in the cultivation of such crops in rural areas. These goods were exchanged in the markets. The development of markets helped in strengthening the local trade. Ananthapuram, Kollam, Kochi, Kozhikode and Panthalayani were the major markets of the period. The major ports were Kollam, Kochi, Kozhikode, and Valapattanam.

Maritime trade attained tremendous progress during the medieval period. The demand for exported goods increased. This resulted in the increase in the cultivation of such crops in rural areas. These goods were exchanged in the markets. The development of markets helped in strengthening the local trade. Ananthapuram, Kollam, Kochi, Kozhikode and Panthalayani were the major markets of the period. The major ports were Kollam, Kochi, Kozhikode, and Valapattanam.

The present Kodungallur and the surrounding areas were known as Mahodayapuram in those days. The Perumals were also known as Cheras and Cheramans. Some of these rulers adopted the title Kulasekara. Most regions in present Kerala were under the rule of the Perumals.

The socio-economic features of the region during the reign of the Perumals were as follows:

• Agriculture flourished in areas close to water resources.
• Brahmins established their power in agricultural villages.
• Temples developed as centres of power.
• The ownership of farmlands was vested with the Brahmins.
• Aaladiyars were the people who toiled in the soil.

The reign of the Perumals came to an end by the 12th century. Consequently, the chieftains, who were the local rulers under the Perumals, began to rule their respective Nadus independently.

The region under the control of a chieftain was known as Swaroopam. The joint family of the chieftain was also known as Swaroopam. The eldest member of the family became the ruler. There were disparities in wealth and military power among the Nadus and the chieftains fought among themselves for power.

The major Swaroopams during the period were Trippappooru Swaroopam in Venad, Perumpadappu Swaroopam in Kochi, Nediyiruppu Swaroopam in Kozhikode, and Kolaswaroopam in Chirakkal.

Anjuvannam was a  Jewish community/colony (corporation/guild) in southern India and a Manigramam is a large, influential guild of South Indian merchants. They were the trade groups that existed in Kerala from 9th century to 13th century CE.

Internal and external trade made great progress in Kerala during the medieval period. Earlier, trade was carried out through the exchange of goods for goods. Later, goods began to be exchanged for money. Maritime trade attained tremendous progress during the medieval period. The demand for exported goods increased. 

Ma Huan, a Chinese traveller, who visited Kerala during the period said this:

"As a ship carrying goods from China arrives at the port, Shabendar Koya (the King's representative) and a broker board the ship and list the goods. A suitable day is opted to fix the prices of goods. Priority was given to silk clothes. Once the prices are fixed they take a vow that the prices of goods will not be changed under any circumstances."

 Shankaranarayana was an Indian astronomer and mathematician in the court of Sthanu Ravi of the Perumal kingdom  in medieval Kerala. He was a disciple of the astronomer and mathematician Govindasvami. He is believed to have established the first astronomical observatory in India at Kotunnallur.

It is generally believed that Malayalam has evolved from Tamil. Sanskrit also has greatly influenced the development of Malayalam. Vattezhuthu and Kolezhuthu were the scripts used to write old Malayalam.

Krishnagatha by Cherussery, Adhyatma Ramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu by Ezhuthachan, Thullal literature of Kunchan Nambiar, etc. contributed to the development of the Malayalam language.

The Mohiyudheen Mala written in Arabi Malayalam by Quazi Muhammed in the 17th century and Puthanpana written by Arnos Pathiri in the 18th century enriched the language.

Many art forms that developed in medieval Kerala. Dance and music flourished in temples during the period.Koothu, Koodiyattom, and Kathakali were staged in the Koothambalam attached to temples. Hence these art forms came to be known as temple arts.
The ritual art forms like Theyyam, Thira, and Kalampattu were performed in Kavus (sacred groves) and other places of worship. They were more popular than the temple arts.

Medieval Kerala had gained much progress in the field of knowledge. Sankaranarayanan was a famous astronomer during the reign of the Perumals. He has authored Sankaranarayaneeyam, a book on Astronomy. 

In ancient Kerala, educational institutions attached to temples were known as Salais.

It is generally believed that Malayalam has evolved from Tamil. Sanskrit also has greatly influenced the development of Malayalam. Vattezhuthu and Kolezhuthu were the scripts used to write old Malayalam.

Krishnagatha by Cherussery, Adhyatma Ramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu by Ezhuthachan, Thullal literature of Kunchan Nambiar, etc. contributed to the development of the Malayalam language.

The Mohiyudheen Mala written in Arabi Malayalam by Quazi Muhammed in the 17th century and Puthanpana written by Arnos Pathiri in the 18th century enriched the language.

Many art forms that developed in medieval Kerala. Dance and music flourished in temples during the period. Koothu, Koodiyattom, and Kathakali were staged in the Koothambalam attached to temples. Hence these art forms came to be known as temple arts.
The ritual art forms like Theyyam, Thira, and Kalampattu were performed in Kavus (sacred groves) and other places of worship. They were more popular than the temple arts.

It is generally believed that Malayalam has evolved from Tamil. Sanskrit also has greatly influenced the development of Malayalam. Vattezhuthu and Kolezhuthu were the scripts used to write old Malayalam.

Krishnagatha by Cherussery, Adhyatma Ramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu by Ezhuthachan, Thullal literature of Kunchan Nambiar, etc. contributed to the development of the Malayalam language.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. The land under the control of the Naduvazhis was called Cherikkal.

The Perumals ruled Kerala during 800-1122 CE with their capital at Mahodayapuram. The Perumals had royal representatives called Koyiladhikarikal.

In ancient Indian education systems, places of learning attached to Buddhist monasteries and centres were known as Pallis, while Vedic educational institutions had other designations.

Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralar. According to the power hierarchy, Naduvazhis were at the top and Ooralars were below them.

The nadus were the places where the people established their agriculutral settlement. The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. There were 14 Nadus and all the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals.

The Perumals had a centralised nature of administration. In the matters of administration the Perumals were assisted by Naluthali, the council of Brahmins.

The Perumals ruled Kerala during 800-1122 CE with their capital at Mahodayapuram. Perumals had a militia called Ayiram which means Thousand in Malayalam.

Kalam ezhuthu is a traditional ritualistic art form practiced in Kerala, where intricate patterns are drawn on the floor using colored powders, typically in temples or sacred groves.

There were three broad types of land based on the ownership right during the Medieval period in Kerala. They were Cherikkal, Brahmaswam and Devaswam. 

The Nadus were under the Perumals who ruled Kerala with their capital at Mahodayapuram. All the 14 nadus from Kolathunadu in the north to the Venad in the south accepted the rule of the Perumals, thus creating a centralised rule in Kerala for the first time.

Kuzhikanam was a kind of tax rebate that existed during the 12th and 18th centuries CE. According to this, all the plants which had not yet started yielding were exempted, when the pattam was calculated by the Janmis who had ownership of the Janmam Lands.

Owners of devaswam land were called Ooralars. The rulers, Brahmins or the people of the temple did not directly cultivate in this land. They used to give the land for cultivation to middle men called, Karalar. According to the power hierarchy, Naduvazhis were at the top, and Ooralars and Karalars were below them.

The Jenmi, consisting mainly of the Nambudiri Brahmins and Nambiar chieftains, were the highest level of the hierarchy, and a class of people given hereditary land grants by the Naduvazhis or rulers'. The rights conveyed by this janmam were not a freehold in the European sense, but an office of dignity. Owing to their ritual status as priests ( Nambudris ), the jenmis could neither cultivate nor supervise the land but would instead provide a grant of kanam to an individual from the Kanikkaran ethnic group in return for a fixed share of the crops produced. Typically, a jenmi would have a large number of kanikkaran under him.

There were many changes in the land ownership rights between the 12th and 18th centuries CE in Kerala. The rights over the land passed on from one generation to another and became a birth right. This kind of land came to be known as Janmam Land and the people who had the ownership right over those lands as Janmis.

The Panayapattam system which was also known as Kanam and Otti became prevalent after the period of the Perumals. According to this, the person who took the land on lease known as Kanakudiyan used to give an amount as security to the landlord when he leased the land for cultivation. The Kanakudiyan did not have the right to sell or transfer this land. He just had the right to cultivate in this land.