Taxonomy and systematic botany - class-XI

The major advantage of the artificial system of the classification is considering one or few characters of the plants, so the option (A) is the correct answer.
The phylogenetic trends consideration are all comes under the natural classification, so the option (B) is not the correct answer.
The option (C) refers, many naturally existing characters, which is suitable for the natural classification, not for artificial classification, so the option (C) is also not the correct answer.

Carolus Linnaeus is a known taxonomist who proposed the classification system and the binomial nomenclature. The classification system is known as the artificial system of classification which is based on the floral characters. The structures of carpel and anther were taken into consideration for the classification. The binomial nomenclature was used for the naming of the organisms in which the first epithet describes the genus and the second epithet describes the species. He is regarded as the father of taxonomy. 
Thus, the correct answer is option A. 

The natural system of classification was proposed to classify the organism on the basis of similarities which can be easily observed. The classification takes into consideration the number of similar and different characters. The natural system of classification was introduced by Bentham and Hooker for the plants which have seeds. This was explained in the book Genera Plantarum which was published in three volumes and based on the work of these scientists.

There are three systems of classification, namely artificial, natural and phylogenetic. In natural system of classification, a large number of traits are considered. It is based on morphological, anatomical, cytological, physiological and biochemical characteristics of the organisms. The artificial system of classification is based on observable characteristics of the organisms. The phylogenetic system of classification is based on genetic and phylogenetic relationships between organisms.

Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms and includes all plants, animals and microorganisms of the world using morphological, behavioural, genetic and biochemical observations, taxonomists identify, describe and arrange species into classifications including those that are new to science.

Artificial systems of classification are based on a few easily observable morphological characters rather than evolutionary relationships.

Artificial systems rely solely on superficial morphological traits and do not incorporate chemical data, unlike chemotaxonomy.

Bessey considered spermatophyta as having a polyphyletic origin, being composed by three different phyla, of which he only treated angiosperms. The most primitive, original flower had many separate petals, stamens and carpels. As they evolved, the parts of the flowers either fused together, reduced or became absent. The simple structures are not primitive, but have become simple as a result of a reduction from more complex parts. An example of the primitive flower would be the Ranunculus, buttercup flowers. A more advanced type of flowering plant would be the catkin inflorescences.

Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection to explain the process of evolution. Natural selection refers to unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce based on suitability of their inherited characters to prevailing environmental conditions; option D is incorrect. According to inheritance of acquired characters, a theory given by Lamarck, individual acquire characters under influence of needs as posed as changing environmental conditions; these characters are inherited. He explained evolution the long-necked giraffes from short-necked giraffes on the basis of his theory; option B is incorrect. John Ray proposed the typological species which is defined as a group of organisms that are morphologically similar irrespective of their breeding compatibility. It determines species as a static entity which can interbreed within their limit of variations and hence, is also termed as static concept; option A is incorrect. Haeckel coined the term phylogeny to refer study of ancestral relationship, lineages and that of evolutionary history of a taxonomic group; he built the first genealogical tree of life and proposed the biogenetic law which states that ontogeny repeats phylogeny. Here, ontogeny refers to life history of an individual and phylogeny is the history of evolution of the individual; option C is correct. Thus, the correct answer is option C.

Taxonomy is the branch of science that deals with principles, rules and procedure of classification of organisms based on their similarities and dissimilarities. 

Taxonomy is the branch of science that deals with principles, rules and procedure of classification of organisms based on their similarities and dissimilarities. Since identification and nomenclature is the prerequisite for classification; the first step in taxonomy is identification followed by nomenclature and then classification. So, option A is the correct answer. 

The term phylogeny deals with the study of the evolutionary history of an organism. The classification which is based on the evolutionary relationship of organisms is referred to as phylogenetic classification. The evolutionary changes, lineage and history are taken into account during the classification.  

Taxon represents taxonomic group of any rank. Each plant belongs to a hierarchy of taxa which are assigned taxonomic ranks. For example, different taxa for onion are Allium cepa (species rank), Allium (genus rank), liliaceae (family rank), thus Allium cepa, Allium, liliaceae are different taxa to which onion belongs. 

Artificial classification systems are based on arbitrary morphological traits and explicitly ignore evolutionary history (phylogeny).

Linnaeus is considered as the father of taxonomy and was first to use the binomial nomenclature for organisms. He proposed natural system of classification for living organism and divide them into plant and animal kingdom; his system was first described in Systema Naturae in which he described all known species of plant and animal. Linnaeus described plant genera known to him in Genera Plantarum. He described all plant species known to him in his book Species Plantarum in which he gave a generic name to each species. 

Taxonomy is the branch of science that deals with principles, rules and procedure of classification of organisms based on their similarities and dissimilarities. Since identification and nomenclature are the prerequisites for classification, the first step in taxonomy is identification followed by nomenclature and then classification. 

Diverse nutritional habits ranging from autotrophic to obligate intracellular parasite; thus they can be autotrophs like plants, heterotrophs like animals and decomposers/saprotrophs like algae. They are classified on the basis of phylogenetic relationship based on rRNA sequences. Option B is correct. Prokaryotes are characterized by absence of true membrane bound nucleus and intracellular membranous structures; these characters differentiate them from eukaryotic organisms. Option A is incorrect. Plants are eukaryotic organisms with characteristic cell wall and autotrophic mode of nutrition. Option C is incorrect. Animals differ from plants by absence of cell wall and heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Option D is incorrect. Thus, the correct answer is option B. 

Eichler classified the plant kingdom into two sub-kingdoms namely Cryptogamae (absence of flowers and seeds and reproduces by spores) and Phanerogamae (presence of flowers and seeds) in the year 1833. He accepted the concept of evolution and considered the simple characters with respect to related plants. 

Natural system of classification was proposed to classify the organism on the basis of similarities which can be easily observed. The classification takes into consideration the number of similar and different characters. The natural system of classification was introduced by Bentham and Hooker for the plants which have seeds. This was explained in the book Genera Plantarum which was published in three volumes and based on the work of these scientists.

Hallier, Hutchinson, Takhtajan, Engler, and Prantl is proposed with the phylogenetic system of classification.

Such a system includes the classification of organisms on the basis of descent from a common ancestor. Also, it is based on evolutionary ancestry.

So, the correct option is ' All of the above' i.e. D.

• The process of developing an evolutionary history of organisms is called phylogeny. The unit of data used here is the character or trait. 
  
• Systematics deals with the evolutionary relationships between the organisms
  
• Taxonomy deals with classifying and naming organisms.
  
• Hierarchy is an arrangement of sequence in an increasing or decreasing order.
  

Phylogeny is the study of the organisms with respect to its evolution and the relationship with other organisms. The concept of phylogeny has been discovered by Ernst Haeckel. The term phylogeny deals with the study of the evolutionary history of an organism. The classification which is based on the evolutionary relationship of organisms is referred to as phylogenetic classification. The evolutionary changes, lineage and history are taken into account during the classification.  

• Gregor Johann Mendel is considered as the Father of Genetics
• Linnaeus is considered as the Father of Taxonomy by his great contributions in this field
• One of the prime systems o plant taxonomy was devised by Adolf Engler
• Har Gobind Khorana is well known for first to demonstrate the role of nucleotides in protein synthesis
• So the correct option is Linnaeus

• System Naturae, is the book that contains various species of animals, was written by Swedish Naturalist, Linnaeus, who is known as Father of taxonomy
• Charles Darwin was an English Naturalist who wrote the book 'On the origin of species' and famously known as Father of evolution
• Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and popularly known as Father of Zoology
• Alfred Russell Wallace was a British Naturalist who wrote the book ' The Malay Archipelago' and famed in developing the theory of Natural selection
• So the correct option is 'Linnaeus'.

• A person who studies the origin, evolution and variations in plants and also about the classification is referred as a taxonomist
• A person who studies about the characteristics, habits and habitats of animals is referred to be as a zoologist
• A person who studies about cultivation of crops, and their techniques is referred as an agriculturist
• A person who studies in detail about plants is called as botanist
• So, the correct option is 'Taxonomist'.
  

Phanerogamae are the sub-kingdom of kingdom Plantae. They include seed bearing and flowering plants. They are further grouped into angiosperms and gymnosperms 

Phylogenetic classification mainly depends on similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics. The evolutionary relationship defined by the phylogenetic depends on the body symmetry, the pattern of embryonic development, the complexity of tissue organisation. Motility is a basic characteristic which is not prominent for a particular class rather it is common to all. It do not change with evolution.

• Michael Adanson was the first scientist to reject all the artificial systems and support the natural systems of classification.
  
• Natural system of classification is that in which all natural characteristics of plants both vegetative and reproductive characters are taken into consideration. It is purely natural as the knowledge of phyllogenicity was not detected 
• Natural system of classification is a biological classification based upon morphological and anatomical relationships and affinities 

Taxonomy is the study of science concerned with classification according to their natural relationships. Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy as he developed a system for categorization of organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. But Taxonomy's first father was the philosopher Aristotle, he first introduced the two key concepts of taxonomy: classification of organisms by type and binomial definition. Therefore founder of taxonomy is Aristotle. Hence option A is correct.

Taxonomy is a branch of biological science involved with classifying organisms based on characteristics they share in common. Using morphological, behavioural, genetic and biochemical observations, taxonomists identify, describe and arrange species into a hierarchical system of groups.

A plant which lives for a few days is called ephemral because of a very short growing season.  Such plant are found near desert or in very cold  countries e.g., Arabidopsis species  have life span of  20-28 days . 

• The International code of botanical nomenclature (ICBN) is the organization that is responsible for rules and recommendations which are proposed whenever organisms are named. 
• There were different codes that were put forward in the years of 1800 and 1900s. 
• The final revised code for ICBN was revised and accepted in the year 1978. 

Maize is a monocotyledonous plant where as China  rose, Mango and sunflower are dicotyledonous plants. 

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist who gave the original classification upon his study of 500 animals based on environment, movement and structural similarities. He has been considered the father of Zoology, Biology, and Embryology. 

Taxonomy refers to a biological classification in which the organisms are arranged in distinct groups based on their common characteristics. It mainly includes the process of identifying and classifying living organisms and give names to them

So, the correct answer is 'Taxonomy'

The term taxonomy was coined by De Candolle. It is defined as the classification of living organisms into different groups based on their nomenclature. Three main objectives of taxonomy are Identification, Nomenclature and Classification.

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that involves the study of principles and procedures of classification into groups based on similarities of structure, origin, etc. Three main objectives of Taxonomy are Identification, Nomenclature, and Classification.

Taxon is the unit of taxonomy. It is any level of grouping organisms. It is all the categories in the hierarchical classification. Genus, order, family, species are all taxon.

Dolphin has been correctly placed in mammals by Aristotle due to the presence of typical mammalian features :

Each unit or category of classification is termed as a taxon. It represents a rank. All the organism belonging to a similar taxon share similar traits. For example, the basic level of classification is species, followed by genus, family, order, class, phylum or division, in ascending order.

Bentham and Hooker's system of classification is based on morphological characters and is considered a natural system, not a phylogenetic one. Phylogenetic systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships, which the others listed do.

Acanthaceae, Fumariaceae, and Lamiaceae all consistently display zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical) flowers with bicarpellary (two-carpel) gynoecium. Other options contain families with actinomorphic flowers or different gynoecium arrangements.

George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker are the British botanists. They proposed the classification system based on the natural system. This system includes the characters of the plants which exist in the natural conditions. The plants are classified based on their relative affinities.

Thus, the correct answer is option B.

A classification that is based on biochemical properties are termed as chemotaxonomy.

And the classification based on quantitative assessment of similarities and differences between the organisms are known as phenetic classification.

Classification based on cytological characteristics of organisms is known as cytotaxonomy. Also, phylogenetic classification is based on the evolutionary ancestry.

So the correct option is B. 

Natural system of classification takes into consideration comparable
study of number of characters so as to bring out natural similarities
and dissimilarities and hence natural relationships among the organisms.
They include morphological characters, anatomical characters,
cytological characters, physiology, ontogeny or development,
reproduction, cytochemistry and biochemistry, experimental taxonomy,
etc. So, the correct answer is 'Natural'.

• Initially, the Phylogenetic system was proposed by Engler and Prantl. In their treatise 'Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien', they arranged the flowering plants according to the increasing complexity of their floral morphology. 
  
• John Hutchinson was a British botanist associated with Royal botanic gardens, Kew, England.  His phylogenetic system first appeared as  "The Families of Flowering plants " in two volumes. 
• Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist who formalized binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as  The Father of Taxonomy. 
• George Bentham was an English botanist whose classification of seed plants (Spermatophyta), based on an exhaustive study of all known species, served as a foundation for modern systems of vascular plant taxonomy.

Taxanomy is a scince of classifying living things according to their similarities and diferences.

• Modern taxonomy is based on the hypotheses' of the evolutionary history of organisms, known as Phylogeny. As with the scientific method, scientists develop a hypothesis on the history of an animal and utilize modern science and technology to prove phylogeny.
• With the advent of such fields of study as phylogenetics, cladistics, and systematics, the Linnaean system has progressed to a system of modern biological classification based on evolutionary relationships between organisms, both living and extinct.
• So the correct option is 'phylogeny'.

Ther term taxonomy is introduced by Carl Linnaeus. He is called as the father of taxonomy. He developed taxonomic hierarchy. It is also called as Linnaeus hierarchy. In it, domain is the highest rank followed by kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Species is the lowest rank in the hierarchy. 

Artificial systems of classification were based upon vegetative and sexual characteristics, where both vegetative and sexual characteristics were given equal weightage. It was not acceptable because vegetative characters are more easily affected by environment.

Classification based on evolutionary relationships of organisms is called phylogenetic system of classification.

Bentham and Hooker's system of classification is published in the book Genera Plantarum. It was published in 3 volumes from the year 1862 to 1883. It is a natural system of classification. In this book, they arranged the species according to the system. They grouped 97,205 species of flowering plants into 202 orders.