Energy output - class-X

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide with three phosphates. The ATP is produced by the addition of phosphorous to nucleoside adenosine.
• The first phosphate is attached by an ester bond. This bond is a normal covalent bond and not a high energy bond. 
• The two-terminal phosphates are bonded by high energy acid anhydride bonds. 

Chemically ATP is a nucleotide. In fact it is a higher order nucleotide because it contains not one but three phosphates. Compounds made up of (pentose) sugar and a nitrogenous base are called nucleosides. If the base is adenine, the nucleoside will be called adenosine. 

Adenosine Triphosphate or ATP has stored energy in its bond with the third phosphate group. However when required, ATP loses its third phosphate group to release energy and gets converted back to ADP. The energy released is in the form of chemical energy that the cells can use.

Most of the plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the $C _{4}$ pathway. e.g. Sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum,etc. These plants are known as $C _{4}$ plants.For the formation of sugars, $C _{4}$ plants undergo $C _{4}$ cycle as well as $C _{3}$ cycle or Calvin cycle. In these plants double fixation of carbon dioxide occurs.

On complete combustion of glucose (1 mole) to CO$ _{2}$ & H$ _{2}$O, approx. 686 kcal of energy is released. When 1 g of glucose respires aerobically by ETS, Glycolysis and  Krebs cycle, around 38 ATP molecules are generated. The terminal group of a mole of ATP has around 10 kcal. Thus, 38 ATP molecules represent a yield of 380 kcal of energy.  

For every $CO _{2}$ molecule entering the Calvin cycle, $3$ molecules of $ATP$ and $2$ molecules of NADPH are required. To make one molecule of glucose, $6$ turns of the cycles are required 

One molecule of the glucose that enters in the glycolysis produces 2 molecules pyruvate and 2 molecules of NADH$ _{2}$ and 2 ATP.  2 molecules of pyruvate will form 2 molecules of Acetyl Co-A and this will release 2 molecules of CO$ _{2}$ and 2 NADH$ _{2}$. These 2 Acetyl Co-A will enter into Kreb's cycle and will release 4CO$ _{2}$, 6NADH$ _{2}$, 2FADH$ _{2}$ and 2ATP.

The energy in an organism is stored in the form of ATP molecule called Adenosine Triphosphate. It is also considered as the energy currency of the cell and break down of one molecule of glucose in the process of respiration. It occurs mainly in mitochondria gives 38 ATP molecules. Single ATP provides around 30.5 KJ of energy.

Sucrose is made up of glucose and fructose. From one molecule of glucose, 38 ATP molecules can be produced during cellular respiration. During Kreb cycle, 2 molecules of FAD are reduced to FADH$ _2$. Now 2 FADH$ _2$ produce 2 x 2 = 4 ATP molecules. Fructose is converted to fructose-6-phosphate by hexokinase enzyme. This fructose-6-phosphate then enters the glycolysis and produces same amount of ATP as glucose molecule does. Hence, it will also produce 4 ATP molecules by FADH$ _2$ of Krebs cycle. Hence, total ATP produced will be 8 molecules phosphorylation by FADH$ _2$ of Krebs cycle.

Aerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen. Cells break down food in the mitochondria in a long, multistep process that produces roughly 36 ATP. The first step in is glycolysis, the second is the citric acid cycle and the third is the electron transport system.

So, the correct answer is ' Mitochondria and Chondriosome '

In the eukaryotic ell, the aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria as well as the cytoplasm. The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) that yields the maximum ATPs is located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. So, the NADH made during the glycolysis in cytoplasm have to be transferred to the mitochondria using the shuttle system and for this, 2 ATPs are consumed. However, in the bacterial cell, since there is no mitochondria, the whole process of respiration occurs within the cytoplasm so no ATP is consumed in transporting across the organelle. Therefore, 38 ATPs are made form one glucose in bacteria while 36 are made in an eukaryotic cell.

When 1 mol (180 g) of glucose reacts with oxygen under standard conditions, 686 kcal of energy is released. 36 ATP synthesised in aerobic respiration. Total free energy stored as high energy phosphate bonds in ATP is therefore 252kcal. The remaining energy is lost. So, the correct option is '686 K.cal'.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate is abbreviated as NADP, is a cofactor used in anabolic reactions, such as lipid and nucleic acid synthesis, which require NADPH as a reducing agent. It produces 52 kCal of energy from one molecule. Adenosine triphosphate used in cells as a energy currency, often called the molecular unit of currency of intracellular energy transfer. ATP is therefore continuously recycled in organisms: the human body, which on average contains only 250 grams of ATP.  One molecule of ATP produces 7kCal of energy.

C- In substrate-level phosphorylation, 2 ATP are synthesized from glycolysis and 2 ATP from Krebs cycle Oxidative phosphorylation that is, 2 × 1.5 ATP or 2 × 2.5 ATP (in malate-aspartate shuttle). Thereby, from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate there shall be 2 NADH+H+ and 6 from Krebs cycle making it – (a) 8 × 2.5 ATP & 2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle, (b) 2 × 1.5 ATP; thus summing it up to 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose.

Photosynthesis is an energy conversion process. During photosynthesis green plants trap solar energy and synthesize sugars. Thus light energy present in photons is converted to chemical energy, which is trapped in the bonds of sugar molecules.

At pH 7.0 and temperature 298 K, the standard free energy change of oxidation of glucose is -686 Kilocalories per mole or -2840 Kilojoules per mole. The negative values indicate that oxidation of glucose is an exergonic or energy releasing process.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide with three phosphates. It is the universal energy currency for all cellular metabolic processes. Endergonic processes are driven by energy input using hydrolysis of ATP. Exergonic processes are coupled to ATP synthesis. 

Overall production of aerobic reaction is 24 (Krebs cycle) + 6 (oxidative decarboxylation) + 6 (glycolysis), i.e., 36 ATP molecules.

• During cellular metabolism, energy is frequently exchanged between endergonic and exergonic reactions and molecules.
• The ATP is a universal energy currency, which is used in these cellular energy exchanges.
• The reason has been that is ATP can be formed easily by the process of phosphorylation of ADP as suggested by the chemiosmotic theory.
• Further, one molecule of ATP has two terminal high energy acid anhydride bonds, which can break easily to provide energy. 
• Therefore, ATP can be both formed easily as well as broken easily. 
  
  Hence, correct option is C.

Pyruvic acid is the end product of glycolysis. It is translocated into mitochondria for complete oxidation to carbon dioxide and water. Inside mitochondria first pyruvic acid is oxidatively decarboxylated into acetyl coA. In this process the three carbon atom containing pyruvic acid is converted to two carbon atom containing acetyl CoA and a molecule of carbon dioxide is released. The acetyl coA is fed into the Kreb's cycle. 

Hydrothermal vents are abundant in chemical substances that are released by the core of the earth. These vents are devoid of light and have a temperature of about 350$^o$C. Therefore, this habitat can help only those organisms to survive which do not use light as a source of energy, that is autotrophs of this food chain should be able to synthesize food from chemicals present in the surrounding- example archea while withstanding the extreme temperature

Production of large amount of ATP takes place exclusively during respiration. However a small number of ATP is produced during the light reaction of photosynthesis, which is utilized for fixing or reducing CO$ _2$

Energy derived from light or chemical compounds is stored in the form of ATP, it is a energy resource compound found across all organisms. Which can be hydrolyzed by the cell to derive energy for all its activities

A build up of proton gradient in the mitochondrial matrix is used by the ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and iP, this is also referred to as PMF or the free energy released by passive movement of protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the cytoplasm.

The sun is considered as the major source of energy. The solar energy is the renewable form of energy and is used for various purposes like generating electricity, working of the solar batteries, etc. The total amount of the energy which is received by the earth from the sun is equal to about 15×10$^{20}$ kcal.

The glucose molecule is oxidised to form pyruvic acid which is further oxidised to release water and carbon dioxide. When one glucose molecule is completely oxidised, 38 ATP molecules are formed. The energy of the 38 ATP is equal to about 2900 kJ or 686 kcal of energy. The equation of the glucose oxidation is given as 

Aerobic respiration is a breakdown of organic material in the presence of oxygen. It takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of the cell. During aerobic respiration, the first step is glycolysis in which there is a net formation of eight molecules of ATP and then the link reaction in which the pyruvic acid which is the end product of glycolysis is converted into acetyl CoA. 

Synthesis of ATP in photosynthesis as well as respiration is possible by the help of several oxidation and reduction reactions. This can be termed as redox reactions. This involves the excitation of electrons from ground state to excited state and vice - versa. ATP is called as the energy currency of cell.

The major energy currency molecule of the cell is ATP. This complex  molecule is critical for all life froms, the simplest to the most complex. It is one of the end products of photophosphorylation, cellular respiration and fermentation and used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes.

ATP is the energy currency. Assimilatory power is the power of plants in the form of ATP and NADPH to obtain food in the form of carbohydrates from the reduction of $CO _2$ during photosynthesis.

One mole of glucose on complete oxidation to carbon dioxide and water produces about 690,000 calories. About 10,000 calories are needed to form the high energy phosphate bonds in one mole of ATP. 36 or 38 moles of ATP formed in respiration process will trap 360,000 or 380,000 calories. The remaining 330, 000 or 310,000 calories are lost as heat. Thus about 52% of the energy released from glucose is trapped in ATP. 

Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate is formed during glycolysis as an intermediate product when glucose-1,6-bisphosphate is converted into fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate and enzme phosphofructokinase is used for this. Fructose generally results in the formation of a higher amount of energy after oxidation and in this case, it is more than glucose.

If a cell is undergoing aerobic respiration then it will first undergo glycolysis which is the first breakdown of glucose in the cell and then Krebs cycle.

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. The energy released by oxidation of organic molecules is transferred into high energy phosphate bonds of ATP, which can be readily utilised when a cell needs energy. One of the three phosphates of ATP is broken down to release energy. Thus, ATP is the intermediate energy transferring compound. 

The hydrolysis of one mole of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate releases approximately 7.3 kcal of energy under standard biological conditions.

ATP or adenosine triphosphate is considered to be the energy currency of the cell as it has three high energy phosphate bonds.

The acetyl CoA produced from pyruvic acid as a result of link reaction enters Krebs' cycle by forming citric acid from oxaloacetic acid. When 1 molecule of acetyl CoA completes 1 round of Krebs' cycle, it produces 3 NADH+H+, 1 FADH2 and 1 ATP. So after going through ETS, a total of 12 ATP is yielded ( 33  + 12  + 1 ).

The breakdown glucose takes place during glycolysis in which there is a net gain of 8 ATP. The pyruvic acid so formed undergoes oxidative decarboxylation and thus forms acetyl CoA. This reaction leads in the formation of 2 NADH₂ molecules. It results in the formation of 6 ATP.

2 ATP from glycolysis which takes place in the cytoplasm and other cellular respiration processes takes place in mitochondria which gives 34 ATP.

Aerobic respiration produces 36 ATP and anaerobic respiration makes on 2 ATP with a single molecule of glucose.

Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. 

One mole of glucose produce=38 ATP molecules

Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is comprised of an adenine ring, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. ATP is often used for energy transfer in the cell. ATP synthase produces ATP from ADP or AMP + Pi. The energy consumed during the conversion of ADP into ATP is 7300 cal/mole.

A total 38 ATP molecules (2 ATP molecules from glycolysis, 2 from Kreb's cycle and 34 from electron transport system) are produced per molecule of glucose oxidised in aerobic prokaryotes. Whereas, the net gain in most of the eukaryotes is 36 ATP molecules (as 2 ATP molecules are consumed intransporting $NADH _2$ into mitochondria). 

ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is complex molecule that contains the nucleoside adenosine and a tail consisting of three phosphates. It is the primary energy currency. A single ATP produce -7.3 kcal.

$NAD^+$ and $NADP^+$ are coenzymes, that function in oxidation-reduction reactions. 3 ATP are formed from the conversion of  $NADPH^+$ to $NAD^+$.

 Aerobic respiration takes place through a series of reactions such as Glycolysis, Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvates, Citric acid cycle and Oxidative phosphorylation. Being efficient in extracting chemical energy, the total free energy produced during the process is 686 kcal. Thus, the correct answer is option C.

38 molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration. It is possible by the yield of ATP molecules from Krebs cycle, glycolysis and electron transport system. 

If the food substances in living cells are oxidized in presence of oxygen, it is called aerobic respiration. It is the step-wise complete breakdown of the respiratory substrates like glucose into simpler molecules like $CO _2$ and water with the release of ATP. It is mostly seen in eukaryotic type of organisms. Each glucose molecule on complete oxidation gives 38 ATP molecules. 

Glycolysis of one molecule of glucose produces 2 PGAL, thus of three molecules will produce 6 PGAL.
Respiration of one molecule of glucose or 2 PGAL produces 38 ATP molecules, thus, of 6 PGAL will produce 114 ATP molecules. Out of the given options 120 ATP is the nearest correct answer. Thus the correct answer is option D.

Adenosine triphosphate is a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the molecular unit of currency of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is one of the end products of photophosphorylation, cellular respiration and fermentation and used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes, including biosynthetic reactions, motility and cell division. One molecule of ATP contains three phosphate groups.

Complete oxidation of 1 gm mole (180 g) of glucose yields 686 Kcal, that is 686000 cal of energy. It means, 1 g of glucose oxidizes to produce 3.8 Kcal.

In glycolysis 4 ATP and 2NADH2 molecules are formed. These 2NADH2  molecules go to electron transport chain. In oxidative decarboxylation no ATP molecule is formed but two molecules of 2NADH2  are formed from two molecules of pyruvate. These two NADH2 go to electron transport chain. In Kreb's cycle 2 ATP, 6NADH2 and 2FADH2 molecules are formed from two molecule of acetyl Co-A. These NADH2 and 2FADH2  go to electron transport chain. In electron transport chain all 2NADH2   and 2FADH2  pass to electron carriers and yield 3 ATP and 2 ATP molecules per 2NADH2   and 2FADH2  respectively. Thus,  4 ATP are formed in glycolysis, 2 ATP in Krebs cycle and 34 ATP from electron transport chain. 40 ATP and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. So, net gain of ATP molecules during one complete oxidation of a glucose molecule is 38 ATP.

Substrate level phosphorylation involves the conversion of 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate to 3 phosphoglycerate producing ATP.

In aerobic respiration, the malate-aspartate shuttle is more efficient than the glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle. It results in the production of 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule in prokaryotes or specific eukaryotic tissues.

For synthesis of 1 ATP, 4 H+ are required. ATP synthase synthesizes 1 ATP for every 4 H+ that passes through it. 

Complete oxidation of glucose occurs through three steps : 

Cellular respiration occurs in three steps :

ATP ( Adenosine triphosphate ) is the energy currency of the cell, it helps in the completion of all the metabolic processes by utilization of its phosphorus molecule. It is generated by mitochondria. One molecule of ATP releases around 30.5 kJ /mol of energy.

• Substrate level phosphorylation is the part of glycolysis reaction whihc will give the cell 2 molecules of ATP at the end of the reaction.
• Electron transport system is the transport system that is present in the mitochondrial membrane where it transports the electrons and hydronium ions from NADH and FAD through various complex of the chain.
• In chemiosmotic phosphorylation the $F _1$-$F _0$ complex is used for the synthesis of one molecule of ATP for every 2 hydronium ion that is transported through the complex from the intermembrane matrix.
  
• For each NADH transported through the chain 3 times 2 hydronium ions are released which means every molecule of NADH produces 3 molecules of ATP. For every FADH molecules passed 2 times 2 hydronium are released which means that every molecule of FADH gives 2 ATP molecules.
• Therefore when per pyruvic acid after going under kerb cycle gives 4 NADH and 1 FADH molecule that gives the cell with  12 ATP and 2 ATP molecules respectively per cycle.
• Therefore ETS and the chemisomotic phosphorylation give the major contribution in the formation of ATP i.e. 15 ATP per cycle.
• Therefore the answer option 'both (b) and (c)' is correct.
  

• Electron transport system is the transport system that is present in the mitochondrial membrane where it transports the electrons and hydronium ions from NADH and FAD through various complex of the chain.
• In chemiosmotic phosphorylation the $F _1$-$F _0$ complex is used for the synthesis of one molecule of ATP for every 2 hydronium ion that is transported through the complex from the intermembrane matrix.
  
• For each NADH transported through the chain 3 times 2 hydronium ions are released which means every molecule of NADH produces 3 molecules of ATP. For every FADH molecules passed 2 times 2 hydronium are released which means that every molecule of FADH gives 2 ATP molecules.
• Therefore when per pyruvic acid after going under kerb cycle gives 4 NADH and 1 FADH molecule that gives the cell with  12 ATP and 2 ATP molecules respectively per cycle.
• Therefore it can be said that kerb cycle is the major contributor to the electron that are provides to the ETS for the production of ATP.
• Therefore option 'Krebs cycle' is the correct answer.
  

$36 $ ATP molecules are produced during complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose.
So, $40$ molecules of glucose will produce $(36 \times 40) ATP= 1440$ ATP.

The equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 674 kcal represents the overall balanced chemical equation for aerobic cellular respiration.

From one molecule of glucose, 38 ATP molecules can be produced during cellular respiration. Glycolysis produces net 2 ATP molecules by substrate level phosphorylation. Kreb cycle produces 2 ATP molecules by substrate level phosphorylation. About 34 ATP are produced from oxidative Phosphorylation. During Kreb cycle, 6 molecules of NAD$^+$ are reduced to NADH and 2 molecules of FAD are reduced to FADH$ _2$. Now 6 NADH produce 6 x 3 = 18 ATP molecules. Similarly, 2 FADH$ _2$ produce 2 x 2 = 4 ATP molecules. Hence, total 18 + 4 = 22 molecules of ATP are produced per glucose molecule from Kreb cycle except substrate level phosphorylation.

Triose phosphate is another name of glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate

Aerobic respiration is comprised by

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "high-energy" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity.  The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy. Since the cellular respiration happens inside mitochondria, and glucose being given out as a by-product, glucose is produced inside and outside mitochondria.

Oxidation is a chemical process that, loosely defined, involves removing electrons from particular areas of a molecule. In biochemical processes, oxidation generally results in the release of energy. The glucose molecule contains stored energy in its bonds, just as other nutrient molecules do, including starch, proteins and fats. When you consume food that contains glucose, you digest the food and absorb the glucose into your bloodstream. From there, cells take up the glucose and either store it for later use or chemically burn it to provide energy. Oxidation of glucose is analogous to burning wood in many ways: It releases chemical energy. The complete aerobic oxidation of glucose is coupled to the synthesis of as many as 36 molecules of ATP.

3-phosphoglyceric acid is an intermediate in glycolysis. Its oxidation involves conversion to pyruvate and subsequent entry into the Krebs cycle and ETC, yielding approximately 16 ATP.

Both ATP and Glucose oxidation are energy releasing or exergonic processes as the value of $\delta$G is negative

The process of glycolysis in respiration requires glucose as the primary substrate to be oxidised. Any other substrate is first converted to glucose before it can enter glycolysis. Certain substrates like ketogenic amino acids, amylose, glycogen need to be converted to glucose first at a cost of some energy in the form of ATP. Hence their net yield of ATP is less than that of glucose as a substrate.

In eukaryotic cells, Complete breakdown of one glucose molecule in to carbon dixoide and water using oxygen produces 36 ATP molecules.

One NADH$ _2$/NADPH$ _2$ yields 3 ATP during electron transport chain process.

Oxidation of palmitic acid yields 7 NADH + 7 FADH2 + 8 acetyl-CoA in 7 cycles of mitochondrial beta-oxidation. Every acetyl-CoA yields 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + 1 GTP (=ATP) during Krebs cycle. An average production of 3 ATP/NADH and 2 ATP/FADH2 using the respiratory chain, We get  131 ATP molecules. However, you have to use 2 ATP molecules for the initial activation of every fatty acid that is going to be oxidized in the mitochondria.

During the Krebs cycle, the net yield obtained was 6 molecules of NADH + H+, 2 molecules of FADH2, 4 carbon dioxide molecules, and two molecules of ATP. 

38 ATP molecules are produced for the oxidation of one molecule of glucose. 2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Citric acid cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system.

During the process of Krebs cycle 2 molecules of ATP, 8 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of FADH2 were produced per molecule of glucose. A total of 28 ATPs are produced during Krebs cycle per a glucose molecule.

The oxidation of fatty acid occurs in the following step in mitochondria: