The beginning of the modern age - class-VII

Christopher Columbus discovered America In 1492. Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator and coloniser. It is commonly said that "Columbus discovered America." It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that he introduced the Americas to Western Europe during his four voyages to the region between 1492 and 1502. 

Vasco-de-Gama a Portuguese explorer discovered the sea route to India In
1498. After sailing down the western coast of Africa and rounding the
Cape of
Good Hope, his expedition made numerous stops in Africa before reaching
the trading post of Calicut, India, in May 1498.

Galileo invented the telescope. When he supported the theory of Copernicus, he was declared as a heretic. His books were burnt and he was imprisoned. 

The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of the Early Modern Age.

Christopher Columbus of Genoa city crossed the Atlantic ocean with the help of the king of Spain. He reached the Bahamas in West Indies (Caribbean Islands).

Renaissance humanism  is the study of
classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe
in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. It was an important feature of the Renaissance movement.

Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese sailor who successfully discovered the sea route to India in the year 1498 AD. He sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the Indian Ocean. He landed on the Calicut (Kozhikode) port and sought trade concessions from King Zamorin. 

The Renaissance  was a cultural movement that initially began in Florence, Italy, but later
spread throughout Europe. It started
around 1350 and ended around 1600. During the Renaissance (a word that means "rebirth"), people
experienced changes in art, learning, and many other things.

Dante was an Italian poet who had written an epic poem called 'Divine Comedy' on the state of the soul. It reveals the religious and social life of the day. 

A great painter and sculptor, Leonardo was also a great musician and a scientist. His paintings of 'The Last Supper' and 'Monalisa' are the great masterpieces of art. New techniques were adopted in his paintings to give a fine feeling of reality. 

Newton discovered the laws of gravitation and said that all heavenly bodies are controlled by this gravitational force. 

In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published a new theory stating the earth revolves around the sun. This is known as the Copernican theory. This theory was considered a serious challenge to the Ptolemaic theory and the Roman Catholic Church. This was strongly supported by Galileo afterwards.

According to the 2011 Census, Christianity is the majority religion in the United Kingdom with 59% and among Christians, the Protestants form the largest community with 44% of the whole population. 

On May 20, 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut what is now Kozhikode, India. Da Gama was the first European to reach the lucrative trade centers of India by sea. Da
Gama's sea route to India allowed Portugal to establish a rich trade
with India and southeast Asia. Thus, Portugal was able to expand its
empire to include many provinces in India.

The followers of Martin Luther were called Protestants. They ware called protestants because of their "Protest". They were in protest of the major beliefs of the Catholic Church at the time. They held differing beliefs than the Catholic Church and sought to create a new Christian sect based on these new beliefs.

Renaissance signifies emancipation and expression. On the intellectual side, it marked the revival of literature and art, on the political side it marked the death of universal authority of Pope, the emergence and consolidation of well-organised nation states. Socially, it marked the spirit of individualism and the recognition of man as an individualism. 

The Mona Lisa is a famous painting of the Renaissance period. The mysterious smile of Mona Lisa has led to much discussions and debates. Leonardo da Vinci, one of the famous artists of the Renaissance period, completed the painting in between AD 1503 and AD 1505. It is preserved in the Paris museum.

German statesman Otto von Bismarck was largely responsible for the creation of the German Empire in 1871. So option A is correct pair. 

It became easier to propagate the Renaissance ideas widely among the masses with the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg.

Portugal led the way in exploration in the 1400s because of government stability and the invention of the caravel.

Under the sponsorship of Prince Henry (famously known as Prince Henry the Navigator), Portugal started exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa at the beginning of 15th century. Prince Henry provided the most advanced navigation instruments and techniques to the sailors of his country. Under his directions, the Portuguese developed a modern, lighter ship, the caravel, which could sail further and faster. Portuguese monarchy offered financial help for ship owners for securing the investments of overseas expeditions.

Both area saw population increases and economic growth fueled by New World silver.

The emergence of The Chinese communities coincided with the rise in maritime trade. These trading ports were the key links between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, thereby linking Southeast Asia and South Asia. In the case of China, Quanzhou, having for centuries been the most important trading port, was joined by a string of such ports as Nagasaki in Japan, Manila in the Spanish, Philippines, Portuguese Macau and Melaka, the Dutch Batavia, and Siamese Bangkok. 

In the New World, cash crops like sugar became the key agricultural product while potatoes and corn contributed to increased food production in the Old World.

The Northern Renaissance most differed from the Italian Renaissance in that it replaced greater importance on religious devotion. In other words we can say, the Italian Renaissance was an artistic movement unaffected by reformation. In Northern Europe Renaissance was philosphical and strongly affected by reformation.

The Pilgrims wanted to worship God in their own way. They had left England because King James did not want them to practice own religion. They broke all tie with the church of England.

The term Renaissance means rebirth or revival. It stands for a complex transitional movement in Europe between medieval and modern times beginning in the 14th century in Italy and lasting into the 17th century.

Russia.

Polish scientist Nicholas Copernicus is known for his heliocentric theory which places the sun as the center of the universe with planets revolving around it. His theory provided an alternative model of the universe to Ptolemy's geocentric theory which had the earth as the center and had been widely accepted since ancient times. Although he faced criticisms for his findings during his lifetime, later scientists built on the foundation laid by him.

The most similar to the Prague Spring of 1968 in Czechoslovakia was the Qing dynasty Hundred Days of Reform. The Hundred Days of Reform was an attempt to modernise China by reforming its government, economy and society. These reforms were launched by the young Guangxu emperor and his followers in June 1898.

To strengthen a king's claim to absolute power over his subjects.

Religious turmoil, territorial conflicts, the need for taxes, and standing armies were all drivers of absolutism. Religious turmoil was a catalyst for the desire for strong, centralized control to restore order, not a result of it.

The Renaissance was a period of  cultural, artistic, political and economic rebirth in Europe from the 14th century to the 17th century.  This period is mostly recognized for the development of highly realistic art technique by famous artists like  Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Scientific revolution refers to the developments that happened in various branches of science which revolutionized the existing way of doing things. Rather than believing in existing knowledge to  conclude things, scientists started using scientific experimentation and observations.  It occurred as a global phenomenon and spread knowledge in various countries. 

China played a dominant role in the creation of the global market for silver. There was an abundance of tea, jade, silk, and porcelain in China for many years. These were exchanged by the Europeans with silver, such that silver then became the currency in China. This demand for silver made China a growing trade partner. Japan initially supplied silver to China but by the mid 16th century, the demand was satisfied by Peruvian mines.

During the early Middle Ages, monasteries were the primary centers of learning and literacy. They preserved classical texts by copying manuscripts, blending Greco-Roman traditions with Christian theology.

The English population began to expand rapidly starting from the mid-eighteenth century, coinciding with the early stages of the Industrial Revolution and improvements in agriculture.

Reformation led to the division within the Church. It broke the unity of Christendom. The church was broken up into two major groups: Protestantism and Catholicism. The two main groups further divided into many sects. National Churches were established in many countries. The supremacy of the Pope was replaced by the supremacy of the Bible.

Leonardo-da-Vinci was a multi-talented personality having proficiency in painting, sculpture, architecture, engineering etc. His world famous oil painting, Monalisa, sparked a new trend in portrait painting influencing European paintings of the coming centuries and gave new colors to the ideals of Renaissance. His paintings were a combination of science and art which is well reflected in this masterpiece. 

Petrarch is known as the 'Father of Renaissance.' He collected about 200 Latin and Greek manuscripts.He was well-known for his poem and sonnets. A deep contemplation of man's happiness and sorrow can be seen in his poems. 

The Church was the most influential body in medieval history. It held great importance in the lives of people who perceived the Church as a source of divinity and legitimacy.

"Renaissance" is a French word meaning rebirth or revival. Europe witnessed extensive prosperity during the later Middle Ages. There were many thinkers and researchers in various walks of life. The Europeans advanced in religious power, political power, economy, social structure, art, literature, science, etc. Renaissance means all round progress in various walks of life. 

During the Renaissance, the humanist scholars acquired the books from the Arabs and retranslated them into Greek and Latin and studied them.

The 16th century has been called the century of geographical explorations. Until the end of the Middle Ages, Europeans were ignorant of geography. In the later developments, Europeans found new sea routes to various parts of the world. The new continent of North America, South America and Australia came to light. 

Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and was a centre of Greek and Roman cultures. It had the valuable manuscripts of the Greek and the Roman writers. But Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453. Many Greek and Roman scholars were thus forced to shift to Rome and other parts of Europe with their manuscripts. 

The Mariner's compass and astrolabe were helpful to sailors in the 16th century. Charts and maps were made available to sailors. The first successful steam-powered vessel was a river steamer built in the USA by Robert Fulton in 1808. 

A new humanist culture had flowered in Italian towns from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. This culture was characterized by a new belief – that man, as an individual, was capable of making his own decisions and developing his skills.

Titian was noted for his mastery of colour. His use of paint and brushwork made
him the foremost painter in Venice and his execution of both landscapes
and portraits brought him great fame in his own lifetime.

The leader of this counter-reformation was the Spanish aristocrat called Ignatius Loyola. He founded the 'Society of Jesuits.' Their main aim was to restore the glory and authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The main objective was to impart good education to the followers of this organisation and make them dedicate their lives to the service of the society. 

Last Judgement was the remarkable painting of Michaelangelo. Last Judgement was one of the influential fresco works in the history of Western art. The Last Judgement is painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican city. The painting depicts the Second Coming of Christ, a future return of Jesus to Earth, and the final judgement by God of all humanity.

Leonardo-da-Vinci was a versatile genius, a writer, scientist, painter, inventor, engineer and architect. Leonardo da Vinci's famous paintings are the 'Monalisa' and the 'Last Supper.' 

The Renaissance eventually spread from northern Italy to the rest of Europe. Italy had three advantages that made it the birthplace of the Renaissance: thriving cities, a wealthy merchant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.

The Last Supper is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci. It is a picture of the last supper of Jesus and his disciples. It shows how they reacted when Jesus said that one of them would betray him. Each disciple has their own expression showing their own reaction to what Jesus has just told them.

He sailed westward under favourable conditions, and on April 22 Cabral sighted the land he named Island of the True Cross. Later renamed Holy Cross by King Manuel, the country ultimately took its modern name, Brazil, from a kind of dyewood, pau-brasil, that is found there. After a stay of only 10 days in Brazil, Cabral sailed for India, on a voyage that was plagued by a series of misfortunes. 

The religious reformation heralded the beginning of a new age. The movement started by Martin Luther was known as religious reformation. This movement led to the split of Christianity and a new sect called 'Protestant Sect' appeared. 

The clergy collected a sum called the 'Peter's Pence' from the people. Pope Leo X wanted to build St. Peter's Church. So, he issued pardon certificates called 'Indulgences' to those who gave money to build the church. Indulgences were letters which were remitted punishments of the sinners who bought them, both in this life and after their death. 

The Portuguese wanted to find a route Africa to reach India. They were looking for a trade route to India that would completely bypass the Muslims so that the Christians could stop paying their "enemies" to get Asian items.

Explorer Vasco da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal, around 1460. In 1497, he was commissioned by the Portuguese king to find a maritime route to the East. His success in doing so proved to be one of the more instrumental moments in the history of navigation. He subsequently made two other voyages to India, and was appointed as the Portuguese viceroy in India in 1524.

St. Peter's Basilica, which is called in Italian "Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano", is a large church in the Vatican City, in Rome, Italy. It is often called "the greatest church in Christendom". The foundation stone of St Peter’s Cathedral was laid on St Peter’s Day (29th June) 1869.

Every European country wanted to find a sea route in order to continue their trade with the Asian country for which various expeditions were carried out. The Portuguese and the Spanish were in the forefront 

Cotton and silk textiles had a huge market in Europe. Indian textiles were by far the most popular, both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. Spices too were in high demand because of the many benefits it had ans also the value it had. People in the Renaissance found many uses for spices and the spice trade was basic to the Renaissance economy. Pepper was used to preserve and to flavor spoiled meat. Cloves and cinnamon were used as substitutes for cleanliness and ventilation. They were strewn across the floor to prevent foot odor from permeating the room. 

After the discovery of silk road, China became one of the biggest exporters of silk. Besides silk, the Chinese also exported tea, salt, sugar, porcelain and spices.

Scents were famous in Arabia. The craft of perfumery is an essential part of Muslim culture. Arabian perfumes have long been alluring the world with their distinct fragrances and are now synonymous with ancient heritage as well as fine luxury.

Expeditions were financed by European kings and queens. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor the expedition, and on 3 August 1492, Columbus and his fleet of three ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Niña, set sail across the Atlantic.

Petrarch was a poet and scholar whose humanist philosophy set the stage for the Renaissance. He is also considered one of the fathers of the modern Italian language. Dante and other supporters were his followers. 

The failure of the Manchu Dynasty to protect China from foreign aggression and to carry out extensive economic and political reforms had convinced a large number of intellectuals and members of the upper classes that the Chinese people must get rid of the “foreign yoke” of the Manchus and of the thousand-year-old absolute monarchy if they wanted to create a new, strong, modern China. The bravest supporters of a republican form of government were the revolutionaries led by the founding father of the Republic of China, Sun Yat-sen.

In England, the small peasants were being deprived of their land by landlords. Since the Native Americans mostly acted in friendship and extended help and cooperation to the Europeans, many of these peasants migrated to North America and wished to settle down there. Eventually, they forced the Native Americans to give up their land by killing and driving them into the interior.

The western European countries invested large amounts of money by hiring experienced sea mariners and giving them ships and other resources to explore new routes. This led to the discovery of Central America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. He thought he reached India and called the local people Indians. That is why the original inhabitants of America are called Native Indians today.

Martin Luther was a German professor, composer, priest, and monk.  He rejected several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and led the Protestant Reformation in 1517.

Most of the trade routes that connected Europe and Asia around 1400 were controlled by Muslim kingdoms, especially the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman army was the largest in Europe. The Ottoman Empire was constantly at war with the European Christian powers.

John Wycliffe, Desiderius Erasmus, and John Calvin were all prominent figures who criticized the corruption and perceived hypocrisy within the Catholic Church, laying the groundwork for the Reformation.

The Bible was not available in the hands of common people in Medieval times (5th - 15th century)m as the language was Latin, not understood by many people.

Petrarch (AD 1304 - 1374) was one of the eminent writers of the Renaissance period. He is known as the Father of Renaissance. The magnum opus of Petrarch is 'Secretum'. Petrarch is often considered the founder of Humanism.

Roger Bacon and Rene Descartes developed the Scientific Methods which we know today. Roger Bacon emphasized on the experimentation while Descartes who was a French philosopher emphasized on Philosophy.

Constitutionalism, which puts limits on monarchs powers, was an idea widely supported among the philosophers during the enlightenment.

While religious and intellectual factors were important, the political motivation of monarchs and princes in Northern Europe to seize Church lands and gain independence from papal authority was a primary driver of the Reformation.

The fine arts, literature and history in the Medieval period were centred on religious ideology. The texts were invariably written in Greek andLatin as these languages were considered elite and scholarly. By the dawn of the 13th century, Latin and Greek gave way to regional languages like English, Spanish, and French. The writers of this period adopted the life of the common man as the central theme of their works. The literature of this period was no longer confined to religion and philosophy but gave way to themes that depicted diverse aspects of human life. Similar changes occurred in other art forms like painting and sculpture. This vision, primarily concerned with the various aspects of human life, is known as humanism.

The new spirit of humanism inspired unique thoughts on the universe and human life. It promoted reasoning and the spirit of enquiry. Consequently, a new awakening in all spheres of human life became visible in Europe and it is known as the Renaissance.

Petrarch (AD 1304 - 1374) was one of the eminent writers of the Renaissance period. He is known as the Father of Renaissance. The magnum opus of Petrarch is 'Secretum'. Petrarch is often considered the founder of Humanism.

The new spirit of humanism inspired unique thoughts on the universe and human life. It promoted reasoning and the spirit of enquiry. Consequently, a new awakening in all spheres of human life became visible in Europe and it is known as the Renaissance.

Hernan Cortes was born in 1485 in Medellin, western Spain. He led an expedition to kill the people and plunder Mexico. Eventually, he killed the local king and put an end to the independent rule of Mexico.

The age of great change marked by renewed interest in classical learning and the arts is called Renaissance. The Renaissance was a period in European history which began in the 1300s, during the late middle Ages and ended during the 1500s, when the modern era began. Renaissance means "rebirth" in French. During theRenaissance there was a rebirth of interest in ancient Greece and Rome.

The sculptors of middle ages carved faces, hands, and draperies but the form of the human body could not be detected under the draperies.

The Divine Comedy is an Italian long narrative poem by Dante Alighieri.  He began the work in 1308 and completed in 1320, a year before his death in 1321. It is widely considered to be one of the greatest works of world literature.

Galileo Galilei was the Father of modern sciences and medieval exponent of observation and experiment. He was the first scientist to record accurate data through his telescope. Galileo supported the theory by Copernicus, that sun is the centre not earth of our Universe. 

"The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy" tells about the  Italian Renaissance, it was written by Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt is 1860. The book is divided into six parts.

Seven books of the Structure of the Human Body was written by Andreas Vesalius. The book was published in 1543. It was a collection of speeches by Vesalius in Padua. This book is an advance description of human anatomy.  

Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who reached India by sea on May 17, 1498. His fleet reached Kappakadavu near Calicut in the current Indian state of Kerala.

A shift from God centred literary activities to human centred literary trends is known as humanism. Petrarch is supposed to have been the original thinker who preached humanism. Humanism spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. 

The fine arts, literature and history in the Medieval period were centered on religious ideology. The texts were invariably written in Greek and Latin as these languages were considered elite and scholarly. By the dawn of the 13th century, Latin and Greek gave way to regional languages like English, Spanish, and French. The writers of this period adopted the life of the common man as the central theme of their works. The literature of this period was no longer confined to religion and philosophy but gave way to themes that depicted diverse aspects of human life. Similar changes occurred in other art forms like painting and sculpture. This vision, primarily concerned with the various aspects of human life, is known as humanism.

Giovanni Boccaccio was an Italian writer, poet, disciple of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist.  Boccaccio was among notable friends of Petrarch to whom he wrote often.