The story of harappa - class-X

Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Mathura was also a center of great artistic craftsmanship and the mathura school of arts produced many famous sculptures.

The Durga temple located at Aihole was built about 1400 years ago. Aihole is situated in Karnataka state. The temple was probably built in the late 7th or early 8th century by Chalukyas. The architecture of the Durga temple is mainly Dravida with Nagara style.

Harappan cities were typically divided into two parts: a smaller, higher western part (the citadel) and a larger, lower eastern part (the lower town).

farmers and herders.

In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. These are known as ring wells. These seem to have been used as toilets in some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps

Lothal was one of the southernmost cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad district. In length according to satellite imagery an ancient extension of the northern river channel bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river.

Many historians do not believe in the Aryan Invasion theory. They believe the main cause of the sudden decline is climate change. Huge climate change or natural calamities might have been a cause of the ruin of Harappan civilization.

These changes in climate led to floods in plains and cities.

This civilization is said to have come to an abrupt end. The following reasons are put forward for its abrupt end: The neighboring desert encroached on the fertile area and made it infertile. Aryan invaders killed people and destroyed the Indus Valley Civilization.

End of the Indus. The Indus Valley civilization began to decline between 1900 and 1800 BCE. Most of the cities disappeared or were abandoned. Archaeologists do not know why this happened.

Archaeological evidence from Harappan burial sites indicates that families were often buried together in the same graves.

Rigveda is the oldest veda out of the four vedas. It contains hymns in praise of Gods like Indra, agni, Soma, Rudra and many more. Vishvamitra was one of the composer of the Rigveda and in one hymn he had a dialouge with Beas and Sutlej. These are the two rivers running in through Punjab in India.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age culture. Iron was not known to them; it was introduced later during the Vedic period.

Great Bath is an ancient structure at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan. The Great Bath dates to the 3rd millennium BCE and is believed to have been used for ritual bathing. Hence, Option A is correct.

Dholavira is located on the island of Khadir in the Rann of Kutch, near the Luni River.

Dolmens are megalithic tombs consisting of two or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone, often used as funerary monuments.

The Harappans were famous for their sophisticated use of standardized baked bricks in the construction of their houses and drainage systems.

Harappan terracotta art included various figures such as toys, votive animals, and human forms. Axe heads were typically made of metal, not terracotta.

Both statements reflect theories regarding the decline of Harappa, including environmental factors like siltation and evidence of sudden abandonment or conflict.

The inscriptions are thought to have been mostly written from right to left, but sometimes follow boustrophedonic style. 

More than a thousand settlements are now known from the Indus valley civilization. The civilization is known to have had a unity of culture, art, script, and technology. The largest city, Mohenjo Daro is thought to have reached a population of approximately 30,000, suggesting a total population of approximately 5 million people. Sun-dried bricks were used for infill, and burnt bricks were used for the drain and sewer linings. It would seem that a standard brick size was developed and used throughout the Indus cities.

Gandhara school of art developed in the first century AD during the reign of Kushanas. The Gandhara school incorporated many motifs and techniques from Classical Roman art in interpretation of Buddhist legends. The Bamyan Buddha of Afghanistan were the example of the Gandhara School.

One of the most noteworthy characteristics of Mohen-jo-Daro was that the main entrance of the houses opened in the side lane instead of opening to the main road. This was aimed at keeping the interiors dust free and also to provide greater privacy to the inhabitants. 

The Indus valley cities faced a serious threat from annual floods. To overcome this threat Mohenjo-Daro had nine levels of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain. Excavations reveal that the city was flooded more than seven times. So the houses were built on high plinth.

Dholavira which was situated in the Kutch area of Gujarat shows Harappan fortification and all the three phases of the Harappan culture. All other Harappan towns were divided into two parts- Citadel and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal divisions- the Citadel, the Middle Town and the Lower town.

Harappan cities except Dholavira had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly occupied by members of the ruling class. The Citadel was generally in the upper part of the city. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people.

Khambhat (Cambay) in Gujarat has historically been and remains a major center for the processing and crafting of carnelian agate (Akik) beads.

The city of Dholavira was divided into three major portions: The citadel, The Middle Town and the Lower Town. The Citadel was in the highest part of the city where the royal palace was situated. The citadel was well fortified and protected. The fort had 4 main gates for entrance.

Lower town was the place were the common people lived. Their houses were mostly small with one or two rooms and are made of hand made bricks.

The houses in the upper towns of Dholavira generally have 2 to 5 comparatively bigger rooms. These big houses, mostly belonged to the ruling class. 

The meaning of the word Mohenjo-Daro is 'Mound of the dead'. It is a well planned and organized town. It has two very important buildings; The great Bath and the Great Granary. The Great Bath was perhaps used for ritualistic purposes. Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork. The Great Granary, which was perhaps the largest building of the Indus Valley Civilization suggests extreme centralization as the ruling authorities must have first brought the agricultural produce here and then redistributed it.

The drainage system of Mohenjo-Daro was very impressive. Water flowed from the house into the streets which had drains. The street drains were equipped with manholes. Perhaps no other bronze age civilization gave so much importance to health and cleanliness as the Indus Valley people did.

Dharmrajika stupa is situated at Sarnath. This stupa was built by Mauryan emperor Ashoka to keep relics of lord Buddha. There are many other Buddha images in the standing position from Sarnath having features like transparent drapery, subtle movement and carved separately and placed about the memorial stupas around the Dharmrajika stupa. They are either single or with the attendant figures of Boddhisattvas, Padmapani and Vajrapani.

The Harappan civilization is highly regarded for its advanced urban planning, which prioritized sanitation, drainage, and public health.

The most important public space of Mohenjo- Daro seems to be the Great Bath, comprising the tank which was situated in the citadel mound. It is an example of beautiful brickwork. It measures 54.8 meters long and 32.90 meters wide. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There were side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. It is suggested that the Great Bath served ritual bathing, which has been so vital to any religious ceremony in India. So all the given statements are correct.

While they had many achievements, the systematic and advanced town planning of the Harappan civilization set it apart from contemporary civilizations like Sumer.

Mohenjodaro's road network was highly organized, featuring wide main streets, a grid pattern, and designs that facilitated natural cleaning by wind.

The worship of trees was widespread during the Indus Valley Civilization. The Peepal tree was considered most sacred. One of the seals shows a God standing between the branches of a Peepal tree and the God was being worshipped by a devotee on his knees. The discovery of a large number of seals with Peepal trees engraved on them also suggests that this tree was considered sacred to the people of Indus Valley Civilization.

Stupas are generally oval in shape and made up of bricks or stones. The basic structure of  a stupa consists of a cylindrical drum and an oval 'Anda' with a 'Harmika' and 'Chhatra' on the top which remain throughout with minor variations and changes in size and shape later.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age society. Iron was not introduced to the Indian subcontinent until the later Vedic period.

There is no consensus among historians regarding the exact cause of the decline of the Harappan civilization; multiple theories exist, but none are definitive.

While town planning was excellent, the highly sophisticated and standardized underground drainage system is considered a unique hallmark of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Lothal is famous for its large artificial dockyard, which served as a major maritime trade hub for the Harappan civilization.

Fortifications in Harappan towns served multiple protective purposes, including defense against floods, raiders, and general security.

While they used metal, the vast majority of everyday utensils and pottery in the Indus Valley were made of clay (terracotta).

The Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) is a later concept in Hinduism and was not part of the religious practices of the Indus Valley people.

The Harappan economy was a complex system supported by a combination of agriculture, extensive trade, and skilled craftsmanship.

Lothal, located in present-day Gujarat, was the primary port city of the Indus Valley Civilization, facilitating maritime trade.

Archaeological evidence, such as Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia, confirms that the two civilizations had active commercial relations.

The Harappan culture provides the earliest archaeological evidence of silver usage in India, often found in the form of ornaments.

The worship of the Mother Goddess is well-documented through numerous terracotta figurines found at various Harappan sites.

While the Harappans were familiar with many animals, there is no conclusive archaeological evidence that they were familiar with the horse.

The unicorn (often referred to as the unihorn bull) is the most frequently depicted animal on seals found at Harappan sites. While bulls and other animals appear, the unicorn is the most iconic and common motif.

Archaeological evidence, particularly the discovery of Indus seals in Mesopotamia, confirms extensive trade and cultural contact between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Sumerian civilization.

The Great Bath is a massive, brick-lined tank located at the site of Mohenjo-Daro. It is considered one of the most significant structures of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age society. Iron was not introduced to the Indian subcontinent until the later Vedic period, long after the decline of the Harappan culture.

The Yadava dynasty, while significant in regional history, is not primarily recognized for the patronage of temple architecture in the same way as the Chandellas (Khajuraho), Chalukyas, or Paramaras.

The Harappan civilization is famous for its highly organized city planning, drainage systems, and trade networks, which are hallmarks of an urban economy.

The Indus Valley Civilization is globally renowned for its sophisticated urban planning, which included grid-pattern streets, standardized brick sizes, and advanced drainage systems.

Lothal was a major port city of the Indus Valley Civilization. The discovery of a dockyard provides strong evidence that shipbuilding and maritime trade were central to its economy.

The Indus Valley people were proficient in metallurgy, working with copper, bronze, gold, and lead. However, iron was not known to them, as it appeared in India much later.

While earlier structures existed, the Gupta period is widely considered the era when free-standing stone temple architecture began to develop and survive in significant numbers.

The rock-cut architecture at Ajanta and Ellora was patronized by several dynasties, including the Chalukyas of Badami and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheda, who were responsible for the Kailasa temple.

Despite numerous attempts by scholars to decipher the Indus script, it remains undeciphered. It is a pictographic script that does not clearly correspond to any known language family.

The bull was the most depicted animal of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was depicted on their seals and tablets. These were Zebu Bull or humped cattle which were probably domesticated by the Harappans for agriculture. Along with Bull, Rhinoceros and Elephants were also depicted by them.

The development of formal temple architecture in India, moving from rock-cut shrines to structural stone temples, began to gain momentum around the 4th century C.E. during the Gupta period.

Assertion A is true because no specific buildings have been definitively identified as temples in Harappan sites. Reason R is a subjective interpretation of their religious practices, but it is not a proven fact that explains the lack of temples; therefore, the reason does not correctly explain the assertion.

Rock-cut caves, such as those at Ellora or Ajanta, are considered a synthesis of architecture and sculpture, where the walls and pillars are carved into intricate artistic forms.

Archaeological evidence from Harappan sites confirms the cultivation of a wide variety of crops, including wheat, barley, peas, and cotton.

The Mathura school of art is distinct for its extensive use of spotted red sandstone, which was sourced from local quarries in the region.

Kailasa or Kailashnath Temple of Verul (Ellora) was made in the 8th century. The Kailashnath temple is dedicated to Shiva. It was constructed by Rashtrakutas. It depicts the episode of Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha when Lord Shiva along with Parvati and others were on the mountain.

Indian temple architecture is traditionally classified into three main styles: Nagara (North), Dravida (South), and Vesara (a hybrid of the two). The statement correctly identifies the two primary styles.

The style of a temple is primarily identified by the shape and design of its tower, known as the Shikhara in the Nagara style and the Vimana in the Dravida style.

The Gondeshwar temple is located in Sinnar, a town in the Nashik district of Maharashtra, India. It is an 11th-12th century Hindu temple. Its main shrine is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The main shrine is surrounded by 4 subsidiary shrines. That is why it is an example of Panchayatana temple.

The temple built at the beginning of the Gupta period (300 to 350 A.D.) consists only simple square cell the garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum, in front of which there is a covered verandah, a portico, which consists of four heavy pillars supporting a stone roof.

Temple in Maharashtra built during the 12-13th centuries are known as Hemadpanti Temples. This style is named after its founder Hemadpant (1259-1274 CE). He was the prime minister in the court of Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri.

The Bamiyan Buddhas were monumental statues carved into the cliffs of the Bamiyan Valley in Afghanistan, which were destroyed in 2001.

The development of spinning and weaving is associated with the Neolithic Age, as this period saw the transition to settled agriculture and the production of textiles.

Harappan culture is recognized for advanced metallurgical techniques. Archaeologists have discovered usage of copper, bronze, tin, silver and gold. It was the first time that silver was extracted and used in Indus valley Civilisation. Its usage was mainly in the ornaments such as hair beads, necklace etc. Though it was also hammered to form thin sheets which could have been used to garnish eatables such as sweets. 

Indus valley civilisation identified as urban settlement is believed to flourish during 3000-1500 BC. It's chief characteristics were permanent settlement and practice of settled agriculture, Trade was a prominent feature of its urban areas. Their accomplishment in art and culture ia also to be noted. This whole Indus valley civilisation can be divided into Early, Mature and later phases given their progress and expanse.

Evidence of urban planning can be seen at Dholavira. This settlement has been divided by archaeologists into three sections – the ‘citadel,’ the ‘middle town,’ and the ‘lower town.’ The city streets were based on a grid system and oriented east to west. The roads and streets intersected at right angles. Each street had a well-organized drain system.

Chanhudaro is often referred to as the 'factory town' of the Indus Valley Civilization because of the extensive evidence of bead-making, shell-working, and seal-making workshops found there.

A seal referred to as Pashupati Seal found in Mohenjo-daro depicts a central human figure surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant and tiger on one side and a rhinoceros and a buffalo on the other side. Below the dais are two deer. He is believed to be the central deity and presumed to be earlier depiction of Lord Shiva.

People of Harappan civilisation had domesticated a wide variety of animals. It included camel, buffalo, sheep, dog, pig, oxen etc. Camels were used as a means of transportation while Oxen was used by farming community for cultivation. Dogs and cats were kept as pets. Other animal such as buffaloes and pigs were used as source of food. We came to know about the domesticated animals through their presence on seals and pictures engraved on tablets. Interestingly there is no evidence of Horses being domesticated during harappan period. 

The Pipal tree or Acasia tree was worshipped as the tree of life which was defended by guardian spirits (such as bull, snake or goat) against evil forces such as a tiger. Artistic sense of people is visible in seals, ornaments, clay and bronze figurines. Great Bath or Public pools have been excavated at Mohan-jodaro as well as Dholavira which indicates toward a ritualistic purification bath ceremony observed by resident of Harappan civilisation.

The massive, elaborate gateway towers known as Gopurams became a defining feature of South Indian temples, particularly under the patronage of the Pandyas and later the Vijayanagara Empire.

Rock-cut Rathas are at Mahabalipuram (A-2), the Kailasa Temple is at Ellora (B-1), the Brihadisvara temple is at Thanjavur (C-4), and the Parvati Temple is at Nachnakuthara (D-3).

Most Indus Valley cities, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, featured houses with entrances opening into side lanes to avoid dust and noise from main streets. Lothal is a notable exception where houses often opened onto the main streets.

Harappan civilization was a Bronze Age society that utilized a variety of materials for tools and weaponry. Archaeological evidence confirms the use of stone, copper, and bronze implements throughout the period.

The Kailasa Temple is a famous rock-cut ancient Hindu temple located in the Ellora Caves in Maharashtra. It is renowned for being carved from a single massive rock.

The granary at Harappa was situated on the mound known as the citadel, but it is specifically noted for its proximity to the Ravi river, which facilitated the transport of grain.

The Dancing Girl was found at Mohenjo-Daro (A-2). The male torso (grey stone) was found at Harappa (B-1). The small male torso (red limestone) was found at Harappa (C-3). The bust of the bearded man (steatite) was found at Mohenjo-Daro (D-4).

The chronological order is: Qutub Minar (early 13th century), Tughluqabad Fort (1321), Lodhi Garden (15th-16th century), and Fatehpur Sikri (late 16th century).

The Indus Valley Civilization is classified as a Bronze Age civilization, which falls under the broader Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) period, as they used both stone and copper/bronze tools.