Digestive glands - class-X

• Succus entericus contain enzymes like disaccharidases (maltase, lactase, sucrase, invertase), dipeptidases, lipases, nucleosidases. Nucleases is found in the pancreatic juice.
• So the correct option is 'B'

Mucus released as a part of secretion of Brunner gland and bicarbonates from pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa from acid as well as provide an alkaline medium. if mucus is not released then the pH of the small intestine will decrease means acid nature in the small intestine will increases.

Succus entericus which is also known as the intestinal juice is secreted by Crypts of Lieberkuhn which moderates the pH of acidic chyme come from the stomach and also contains various digestive enzymes that take part in the final digestion of carbohydrate, fat and protein,

Brunner's glands are characteristic of the duodenum, where they secrete alkaline mucus to neutralize acidic chyme entering from the stomach.

Paneth cells are located at the base of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn in the small intestine. They secrete antimicrobial substances, including lysozyme, to regulate the gut microbiome.

The simple tubular gland are single, straight, tubular. Secretory cells line the entire duct, which open on the apical surface. 

Paneth cells are present in the mucosa between the bases of villi of small intestine (Crypts of Lieberkuhn). The function of these cells is to secrete antibacterial lysozyme.

Succus entericus is the intestinal juice. It is secreted by crypts of Lierberkuhn. Succus entericus brings about complete digestion of all the bio molecules in the small intestine.

Small slit like space is found at the base of villi. These spaces are called crypts of  Lieberkuhn. Brunner's gland are small spherical multicellular glands. They open into crypts of  Lieberkuhn with the help of fine tubules. Paneth cells are found in mucosal layer of crypts of Lieberkuhn of jejunum. They are unicellular glands. They synthesize and secretes enzymes of intestinal juices. The secretory substances of Brunner's glands and Paneth cells are combinedly called intestinal juice or succus entericus. 

Succus entericus also called, intestinal juice is a fluid that is secreted in small quantity in the small intestine. The secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet cells constitute this intestinal juice. It is highly variable in constitution, and contains various enzymes (such as erepsin, lipase, lactase, invertase, enterokinase, dipeptidases, nucleosidases and maltase) and mucus.

Succus entericus is the alkaline secretion produced by glands in the wall of the duodenum, consisting of water, mucoproteins, and hydrogencarbonate ions. It helps to counteract the highly acidic and proteolytic chyme entering the small intestine from the stomach, and thus protects the duodenum from damage.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are simple tubular glands. They occur throught the small intestine between the villi. The glands and intestinal villi are covered by epithelium, which contains multiple types of cells: enterocytes (absorbing water and electrolytes), goblet cells (secreting mucus), enteroendocrine cells (secreting hormones), tuft cells and, at the base of the gland, Paneth cells (secreting anti-microbial peptides) and stem cells. The secretion of this gland is called intestinal juice or the succus entericus, which is alkaline in nature and having pH 8.3.

While the chyme is present within the small intestine, glands within this structure begin to secrete different types of digestive enzymes called carbohydrases (amylase, proteases, and lipases or fat splitting enzymes). The glands responsible for these enzymatic secretions are called the crypts of Lieberkuhn. Another set of glands called Brunner's glands are responsible for the secretion of mucus. Collectively, the intestinal secretions are referred to as succus entericus.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are tubular glands located in the epithelial lining of the small and large intestine. They are not found in the stomach, pancreas, or liver.

Haustra are sac like structures which are arranged on the side of three longitudinal muscles cords called taeniae in colon (intestine).

Stratum lucidum is a thin, clear layer of the epidermis found in thick skin. It contains the protein eleidin, which is an intermediate form of keratin that gives the layer its shiny appearance.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are found in the small intestine, specifically between the villi, where they play a role in cell renewal and secretion.

Brunner's glands are located in the submucosa of the duodenum. They are distinct from the glands found in the mucosa of other intestinal sections.

Paneth cells are specialized secretory cells located at the base of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn in the small intestine.

Succus entericus, or intestinal juice, is primarily secreted by the Crypts of Lieberkuhn. While Brunner's glands contribute alkaline mucus, the term succus entericus specifically refers to the secretion from the crypts.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are simple tubular glands that extend into the lamina propria of the small intestine.

Brunner's glands are found exclusively in the submucosa of the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are found in the small intestine and secrete various components of the intestinal juice, including enzymes and mucus.

Brunner's glands secrete an alkaline, bicarbonate-rich mucus that protects the duodenal mucosa from the acidic chyme coming from the stomach.

Enterogastrone inhibits gastric secretion, while gastrin stimulates it. Pancreozymin and cholecystokinin stimulate pancreatic and bile secretions, respectively.

Valves of Kerckring, also known as plicae circulares, are large circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa found in the small intestine to increase surface area for absorption.

Digested lipids (fatty acids and monoglycerides) are re-esterified into triglycerides within the intestinal epithelial cells. These are then packaged into chylomicrons and absorbed into the lacteals.

Succus entericus, or intestinal juice, is primarily secreted by the Crypts of Lieberkuhn. Brunner's glands are located in the duodenum and secrete alkaline mucus, not the full composition of succus entericus.

Enterokinase is an enzyme that activates trypsinogen into trypsin. Trypsin is essential for activating other pancreatic proteases, which are required for the digestion of proteins like albumin.

Goblet cells secrete mucus, which acts as a lubricant in the digestive tract. A lack of mucus would lead to friction and difficulty in the movement of food through the intestine.

Paneth cells are located at the base of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn and are known to secrete antimicrobial substances, including lysozyme, to protect the intestinal lining.

There are 64 total codons. Of these, 61 code for the 20 standard amino acids, while the remaining 3 are stop codons that do not code for any amino acid.

The outer surface of columnar epithelial cells lining the intestine of man is brush-bordered. It is made up of microvilli that greatly increase the surface area for absorption.

The correct answer is (b). 

Brunner's gland is present in 'duodenum'.

• An anatomic structure exclusive to rabbits that are located at the terminal part of the ileum is sacculus rotundus. 
  
• It is formed at the distal end of ileum and is expanded to form a small dilated spherical sac in a rabbit.
  
•  It is rich in lymphoid tissue. Hence, Sacculus rotundus is a dilated part as posterior end of the ileum.
  

Crypts are anatomical structures that are narrow but deep invaginations into a larger structure. One common type of anatomical crypt is the Crypts of Lieberkühn. Crypts of Lieberkuhn between the bases of villi in the intestine have the Paneth cells which secrete digestive enzymes.

So, the correct option is 'paneth cells'.

While the chyme is present within the small intestine, glands within this structure begin to secrete different types of digestive enzymes, called carbohydrases (amylase, proteases, and lipases or fat splitting enzymes). The glands responsible for these enzymatic secretions are found in the mucosal layer of the small intestine, called the crypts of Lieberkuhn.

An intestinal gland (crypts of Lieberkuhn) is a gland found in the epithelial lining of the small intestine and colon. The glands are named after German anatomist J. N. Lieberkuhn.

Crypts of Lieberkuhn are tubular glands found in the intestinal mucosa, specifically between the villi in the small intestine.

Heparin is an anticoagulant formed in the liver and mast cells. It is found in blood and connective tissues. It belongs to a class of mucopolysaccharides and helps to prevent blood clots in arteries and veins. It is an anticoagulant that prevents the formation of blood clots. It is also used before surgery to reduce the risk of blood clots. It helps the blood to flow smoothly in the body by making a certain natural substance in the body work better. 

The sphincter of Oddi, abbreviated as SO, is a muscular valve that controls the flow of digestive juices through the ampulla of Vater into the second part of the duodenum. The sphincter of Oddi is relaxed by the hormone cholecystokinin via vasoactive intestinal peptide. 

Kupffer cells are also known as stellate macrophages (star-shaped) located in the liver, lining the walls of the sinusoids. They form part of the mononuclear phagocyte system. This means that they are a part of the first line of defense (inflammatory barrier) of the body and are involved in engulfing any invading pathogen (virus, bacteria, etc.) and destroy them.

Hepatocytes produce bile, which emulsifies fats but does not contain digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules into absorbable forms. Enterocytes, parietal cells, and oxyntic cells all contribute to the production of enzymes or acid that facilitate digestion.

The dead RBCs are metabolised in the spleen and liver and the heme is broken down into bilirubin which is a yellow coloured pigment.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes for all three major classes of nutrients: amylase for carbohydrates, lipases for lipids, and proteases (like trypsin) for proteins.

The liver plays a central role in metabolism, including glycogenesis (storing glucose as glycogen), gluconeogenesis, and glycogenolysis to maintain blood glucose levels.

The islets of Langerhans are the cells in the pancreas. These cells are responsible for the endocrine functions of the pancreas. There are three type of cells, alpha cells, beta cells and gamma cells. The gamma cells are known delta cells. These cells comprise only 5% of the islets cells. These cells are responsible for the production of somatostatin hormone.

There are two types of cells in the pancreas, the acinar cells and the islet of Langerhans. The acinar cells are lobed cells. These cells are responsible for the exocrine function of the pancreas. They secrete the pancreatic enzymes and forms the pancreatic juice which is involved in the process of digestion.

In organogenesis, cells of the three germ layers lead to the formation of specific structures. The ectoderm eventually forms the outer layer of the skin and gives rise to the nervous system and sense organs. Tissues that eventually line the digestive tract and organs like liver, pancreas and lungs are all of endodermal origin. Skeletal tissue, muscle, and the circulatory, excretory, and reproductive systems are derived from mesoderm.

The pancreas is a heterocrine gland; it functions as an exocrine gland by secreting digestive enzymes into the duodenum and as an endocrine gland by secreting hormones like insulin and glucagon into the blood.

In the human pancreas, beta cells are the most abundant cell type within the islets of Langerhans, typically comprising about 60 to 80 percent of the islet cells.

In liver, alcohol is oxidised into acetaldehyde which is further oxidised into acetate. The latter is converted to acetyl coenzyme A which is used in Krebs' cycle. Ethyl alcohol $\rightarrow $ Acetaldehyde $\rightarrow $  Acetate $\rightarrow $ Acetyl Co A $\rightarrow $ $CO _{2}+H _{2}O$

The human liver is composed of a vast number of functional units called hepatic lobules, estimated to be around one million in an adult liver.

The liver is a multifunctional organ that produces bile, synthesizes cholesterol, and stores/metabolizes iron, among many other functions.

The liver performs all these functions: glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen), glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose), and deamination (removal of amino groups from amino acids).

The Islets of Langerhans are the clusters of endocrine cells scattered throughout the pancreas that secrete hormones like insulin and glucagon.

Kupffer cells are found in liver sinusoids (a-q). Beta-cells are in the Islets of Langerhans (b-p). Brush border cells are in the small intestine (c-t). Paneth cells are also in the small intestine (d-t). Note: The provided option D matches a-q and b-p, which are correct.

The pancreas is a heterocrine gland, meaning it has both exocrine functions (secreting digestive enzymes) and endocrine functions (secreting hormones).

Renin is an enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney, not the pancreas. Insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin are all produced by the endocrine pancreas.

The liver is the primary site for the urea cycle, where toxic ammonia produced by protein metabolism is converted into urea for excretion.

Pancreatic juice contains nucleases, specifically DNA-ase and RNA-ase, which break down nucleic acids into nucleotides.

The liver is the largest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body.

The Islets of Langerhans are the endocrine cell clusters found within the pancreas.

The human liver is anatomically divided into four lobes: the right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes.

The pancreas is an organ found in the abdomen. It is located behind the stomach. The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen. It plays important role in converting the food into fuel. It helps in digestion. It also produces hormone insulin which regulates blood sugar.

Secretin is a hormone released by the S cells of the duodenum in response to acidic chyme entering the small intestine. It stimulates the exocrine pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice (which contains salts) to neutralize the acid. Gastrin stimulates gastric acid secretion, CCK stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion, and GIP inhibits gastric motility.

The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder before entering the bile duct into the duodenum

• The liver performs a variety of functions such as synthesis, storage and secretion of various substances. The liver secretes bile juice.
  
• The bile secreted by the hepatic cells is released into the duodenum contains bile pigments, bilirubin and biliverdin formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin of the old RBC destroyed in the body., bile salts such as glycocholates and taurocholate of sodium and potassium, cholesterol and phospholipids but no enzymes. 
  
• The bile secreted is a yellowish-green fluid that helps in the emulsification of fats. Bile is not an enzyme, but it does contain bile salts that emulsify large fat droplets. Hence, the liver is the digestive glands secretes a digestive juice which does not contain enzymes.
  

1. Bile is a dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, bile helps in the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In humans, bile is produced continuously by the liver and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder.
2. The composition of hepatic bile is water, bile salts, bilirubin, fats (cholesterol, fatty acids, and lecithin), and inorganic salts.
3.  Lipase is an enzyme secreted by pancreas and lipase is present in pancreatic juice. Lipase helps your body digest fats. Hence, the bile does not contain lipase.
   

The correct answer is (a).

The pancreas has islet of Langerhans cell that possesses alpha, beta, delta and F cells. Delta cells secrete somatostatin that inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon hormones. Beta cells secrete insulin that helps in the utilization of blood sugar (cellular glucose). Alpha cells secrete glucagon hormone that acts on glycogen during starvation condition and converts them into glucose. the process of breakdown of glycogen is called as glycogenolysis. Thus, the correct answer is 'i - b, ii - c, iii - a'.

Each hepatic lobule of the liver is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the Glisson's capsule. So, the correct answer is (d).

The result shows that the extract of the pancreas is ineffective to reduce blood sugar level. The extract contains secretions of both exocrine and endocrine parts i.e., acinar cells and islets of Langerhans respectively. Since the extract of the endocrine part which is islet of Langerhans is individually capable of reducing sugar level, this shows that some factors from acinar cells are preventing anti-diabetic factor to function.

The pancreas is one of the most important glands of the digestive system in human. It is located in the abdominal cavity, behind the stomach, which is upper left part of the abdomen. The tissues with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightly-stained clusters of cells, called as Pancreatic islets, also called as Islets of Langerhans. Islets of Langerhans contain four different type of cells, that is, alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells, and pp cells also called as F cells. The F cells constitute only 5% of islet cells. It secretes pancreatic polypeptide. 

All animals and humans store some glucose in the cells so that it is available for quick shots of energy. When there is excess of glucose in the body, it is stored in the liver as the large compound called glycogen. when there is demand for glucose then it is break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.

Gastrin hormone is secreted by the G-cells in the mucosal lining of the stomach. Gastrin is responsible for stimulating the secretion of HCl in the stomach.