From stone to metal - class-VI

The domestication of horses significantly increased the mobility of pastoralist societies, allowing them to traverse greater distances and manage larger herds.

Homo Sapiens remained omnivores throughout their migration and development; they did not evolve into herbivores.

Specialization of labor in early Mesopotamia generally involved farmers growing a variety of crops to ensure food security; specializing in only a few crops was not the primary driver of increased yields.

Both the Shang Dynasty and Ancient Egypt were protected by natural geographic barriers, such as mountains, deserts, and seas, which provided security from external invasions.

Burzahom
was the first Neolithic site to be discovered in Kashmir. Burzahom
means, place of birch. Burnt birch found in the
excavations showed that birch trees must have been common in the area in
the Stone Age. The earliest Neolithic homes at Burzahom were pits dug
below ground level using stone tools. The sides of the pits were
plastered with mud. These pits must have provided the early Neolithic
people of Burzahom protection from the elements during bitter winters in Kashmir.

The Akaneveid dynasty  (550–330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great, was the first of the Persian empire to rule from the Balkans to North Africa and also Central Asia, spanning three continents, from their seat of power in Persis. It was the largest empire yet seen and the first world empire.

The man evolved from cave man to homo sapiens. The various ages from stone age to present time define the evolution of humans. Starting from Astro Pythicus , Rama Pythicus, Homo Erectus, Neanderthal Man, Homo Sapiens

Zoroastrianism followed Christianity is the false statement regarding Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism is the pre-islamic religion of Iron that survives there in isolated areas and more prosperously in India, where the descendants of Zoroastrian Iranian immigrants are known as Parsis or Parsees.

Mesolithic Period was associated with the origin of fire. It is also called Middle Stone Age, ancient cultural stage that existed between the Paleolithic Period, with its chipped stone tools and the Neolithic Period with its polished stone tools.

The Neolithic age was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC. It was associated with the beginning of agriculture and cattle raring. the Neolithic revolution was the first agricultural revolution. It was gradual change from nomadic hunting and gathering communities and bands to agriculture and settlement.

Mesopotamia was the earliest river valley civilization, starting to form around
3500 BCE. The civilization was created after regular trading started
relationships between multiple cities and states around the Tigris and Euphrates  Rivers. Mesopotamian cities became self-run civil governments.

A totem (Ojibwe doodem) is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe. It is a natural object, plant or animal that is inherited by members of a clan or family as their spiritual emblem. Hence, Option A is correct. Among the rest, a minute shaped flint, typically part of a composite tool such as a spear. Jhum or Jhoom cultivation is a local name for slash and burn agriculture practiced by the tribal groups in the northeastern states of India like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland and also in the districts of Bangladesh like Khagrachari and Sylhet. Megalithic means relating to or denoting prehistoric monuments made of or containing large stones. Hence, these are incorrect. 

People first began making things from metal over 9000 years ago, when they discovered how to get copper from its ore. They then learned how to make a harder alloy, bronze, by adding tin to the copper. About 3000 years ago, they discovered iron.

The then capital city of Inkes civilization is called by Peru. Inkes Civilization was flourished in the regions of Equidor, Peru, Chili in the South America. This Civilization was flourished in 14th and 15th Centuries AD.

Indus Valley Civilisation people did not probably know about the use of cow. The Important innovations of this civilisation include standardized weights and measures, seal carving and metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead and tin.

Cro-Magnon man is an early Homo sapiens  that lived about 40,000 years ago. Skeletal remains and associated artifacts of the Aurignacian culture were first found in 1868 in Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France.

The Egyptian civilization was associated with the development of first calendar. In the Egyptian calendar, there were 12 months of 30 days each. The
months each had three "weeks" of 10 days each. Between the end of the
12th month and the beginning of the first month of the next year were
five extra days, resulting in a fixed year of 365 days
every year.

Following features was not the feature of Neolithic age:-

• Man was merely a food gatherer.
• The age was associated with the origin of usage of fire.

• Farming settlements began around 4000 BCE and around 3000 BCE there appeared the first signs of urbanization.
• By 2600 BCE, dozens of towns and cities had been established.
• Between 2500 and 2000 BCE the Indus Valley Civilization was at its peak

Shintoism is popular in Japan. Shinto also called kami-no-michi, is a Japanese ethnic religion that focuses on ritual practices to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past.

The Inca were a South American people who controlled a large empire that stretched along the Pacific coast from Ecuador to northern Chile. The Inca dynasty was founded at about 1200 A.D. and lasted until the end of the 16th century, when the Spanish conquerors came to South America.

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar. It is based on exact astronomical observations of the sun's longitude and the moon's phases.

Remains of Indus Valley Civilization in Rajasthan have been found at Kalibanga. Kalibanga has given the evidance of both Pre-Harappan culture in lower layer and Harappan civilization in the upper layer. The Kalibanga flourished for at least 450-600 years.

In the ancient times the civil servants on higher posts were recruited through a competition in China. The exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree.

The
remains of one of the most sophisticated prehis toric native
civilizations north of Mexico are pre served at Cahokia, Illinois. The
people who lived at this site were called the Mound Builders.

The Paleolithic remains have mainly been found in South India at
Tanjore, Madura, Kadur, vamti, Talya; Bellary district, in areas around
Madras, and in districts of Guntur, Godavari and Krishna. In Northern India old stone implements have been found in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.

After the start of the Great Depression, Democratic candidates won the next five presidential elections over sixteen years.

The main tool types of Mesolithic tools  are backed blades, obliquely truncated blades,
points, crescents, triangles and trapezes. Some of the microliths were
used as components of spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons
and daggers. They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts
and joined together by natural adhesives like gum and resin

The Mesopotamians were the first to make glassware. They were the first people in the world to issue receipts and bills in business transactions.  The Sumerians valued gold, copper and gems, rode in wheeled chariots, and used the mules to carry goods.

Pottery-making as technique emerged first in the Neolithic age.  It is the craft of making ceramic material into pots or potterywares using mud. It is one of the oldest human inventions, originating before the Neolithic period. Neolithic pottery have been found in places such as Jomon japan, the Russian Far East, Sub-Saharan Africa and South America.

Bhimbetka valleys is know for having a continuous succession of Paleolithic painting of different periods. These are an archaeological site of the Paleolithic, exhibiting the earliest traces of human life on the Indian Subcontinent and thus the beginning of the Indian Stone Age.

In the Middle East, people began to settle in small communities and practice agriculture.

After humans transformed from hunters and gatherers to farmers, they cultivated their food crops. Therefore, the development of clay pottery was primarily important because it enabled early farmers to cook and store large amounts of food.

The Olmec civilization in Meso America.

They migrated from Africa to Europe.

Monotheism is defined as the belief in the existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world. A broader definition of monotheism is the belief in one god. A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, and both inclusive monotheism and pluriform monotheism which, while recognising various distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity.

The Neolithic Era starts in the Middle or Near East. It is a time when people move from the hunting and gathering stage and start settling down in one location. They discover that seeds can be planted so crops can grow.

Neolithic or the New Stone Age refers to a period when domestication of plants and animals began and there was a transition to sedentary lifestyle from the previous hunting and gathering. The Neolithic revolution happened around 10,000 BCE around the Levant area (western Asia) and then spread to Fertile Crescent (middle east)  and other areas.

During the neolithic age the dead were mostly buried inside their houses or were buried along with items they treasured in life. As the society became more agrarian there was the kinship ties became strong as people were mostly tied with land and there was a general belief for life after death.

Early humans adapted through biological changes like skin pigmentation, cultural shifts like tool development, and dietary changes. Changing limb size is a long-term evolutionary process rather than a specific adaptation strategy used by early Homo Sapiens to survive in different climates.

Maize was first domesticated from the wild grass teosinte in the Balsas River Valley of Mexico approximately 9,000 years ago.

The Aborigines of Australia continued to hunt and gather even though they were exposed to farming because agricultural activities required a huge workforce and they did not have large enough communities to sustain it.

Mesopotamia was the first in the history of civilization to build irrigational works to control water. It helped the people of the civilization from floods and and provided them with the needed sanitation.

The word paper comes from the ancient Egyptian
writing material called papyrus, which was woven from papyrus plants.
Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 BCE in Egypt, and in ancient Greece and Rome.

Shang dynasty believed in Polytheism i.e. belief in many gods. Ancestor worship was also a very important part of their lives as it was thought that the well being of the people and the success of the crops depended on the happiness of the dead ancestors.

While during the hunting-gathering stage the Humans had to equally work to gain food resources for consumption, the introduction to agriculture changed the society from egalitarian to unequal in terms of gender role. Agriculture meant less efforts to search and hunt for food sources and this led to women being limited to taking care of the family instead of working in the fields.

Early India was characterized by immense cultural, linguistic, and ethnic diversity rather than homogeneity. It possessed abundant natural resources, active trade routes, and robust travel and communication networks across the subcontinent.

Monogamy is the act of getting married to one person at a time. According to a law in "the code of Hammurabi", a Babylonian code of law of ancient Mesopotamia, if a man's wife is caught cheating on her husband, the husband is allowed to tie her and throw her into the water.

• The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Pyramid Texts.
• According to the excerpt from it, most people during this time believed that human beings would become god-like in the afterlife.
  

Egyptians seemed to have developed the first solar calendar.

• The Olmecs were the earliest known major civilization in Mesoamerica following a progressive development in Soconusco. 
• They lived in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico.
• The Olmecs were the first great engineers of Mesoamerica. There is an aqueduct at San Lorenzo, carved out of dozens of massive stones then laid side-by side.
•  The royal compound at La Venta shows engineering as well.

The earliest known horse drawn chariot is from Mesopotamia, dated back to 1900 BCE. It is Two wheeled and must have been drawn by 2 horses. the invention made transportation and traveling easier. 

The fertility of river valleys and the availability of water provided high agricultural potential, which naturally attracted large populations and encouraged migration to these centers.

As cities grew, competition for limited resources, particularly water from shared rivers, led to increased territorial disputes. This necessitated a shift from religious leadership to military leadership to defend resources and expand territory.

The shift to territorial states was driven by the desire of rulers to consolidate power and resources by conquering and administering larger geographic areas, moving beyond the limited scope of a single city.

• Social stratification refers to society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, gender, occupation, and social status, or derived power.
• Therefore, activities like construction of elaborate burial sites, development of silk cloth, the types of crops planted in an area and a higher demand for luxury goods all show social stratification.

The Development of metallurgy was very significant for the field of agriculture and warfare. Better tools meant better crops and less efforts. Many guilds of skilled workers also developed as a result of this development.

The Oxus culture was centered on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus River), which is located in present-day northern Afghanistan, eastern Turkmenistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan.

•  Patriarchy is defined as a social system in which the father is the head of the family and men have authority over women and children.
• The reason that society became more patriarchal was because women were the carriers and bearers of children. In the beginning, women were honored for this but it became a disadvantage later on. 
• Also a very big portion of the Mesopotamian laws, such as the Hammurabic code, had many laws emphasizing limits and inferiority of the women. Because of this many women were looked down upon and treated as property and a way to keep the civilization going and pass on the family name.

The statement by the Egyptian ruler Akhenaten praises a single supreme deity, the sun disk Aten, and credits it exclusively with the creation and sustenance of life. This reflects a strict belief in monotheism, departing from traditional Egyptian polytheism.

• Cities concentrated political, religious, and social institutions that were previously spread across many smaller, separate communities, which contributed to the development of states.
• The political structures that states provided were an important factor in the rise of civilizations because they made it possible to mobilize large amounts of resources and labour and also tied larger communities together by connecting them under a common political system.

In early agrarian civilizations, the vast majority of the population consisted of farmers and laborers who worked the land to support the urban centers and the elite classes.

• Egypt was built around a single river, so for much of its history was unified. It also had limited scope for expansion, though it did conquer into West Asia and further down the Nile.
• Mesopotamia was a landscape between two rivers, each of which shifted its course. It was mostly a collection of city-states and hence the population was more spread out. Large states would expand well beyond Mesopotamia.

The desire to know the future has been a constant in human history and the people of China during the Shang Dynasty were no different along these lines than people today. Fortune-telling during the Shang Dynasty was considered an important resource in making decisions, and these 'psychics' were consulted by everyone from the farmer to the king. These fortune-tellers were thought to be in touch with the spirit world of the ancestors who lived with the gods and knew the future. These spirits would communicate with the psychics through the oracle bones.

Phoenicia thrived as a maritime trader and manufacturing center from c. 1500-332 BCE and was highly regarded for their skill in ship-building, glass-making, the production of dyes, and an impressive level of skill in the manufacture of luxury and common goods.

Humans started producing foodgrains in the Neolithic age i.e. New Stone Age. The term Neolithic Period refers to the last stage of the Stone Age extending from 4000 BC to 2500 BC. Archaeological evidence indicates that the transition from food-collecting cultures to food-producing ones. Man began to cultivate which is suggested by archaeological evidences across Asia and Europe.

During the Paleolithic Age, hominins grouped together in small societies such as bands, and subsisted by gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging wild animals. The Paleolithic Age is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools.

Toward the end of the Neolithic Era, people began to use tools made from metal. Copper was the first metal used for tools. Eventually copper replaced the stone, leading to the Copper Age.

Paiyampalli. Paiyampalli is a village in Tirupattur taluka of Vellore district in Tamil Nadu, India. It is located 5 km east of Barugur and 8 km west of Natrampalli. It is known for the excavation site in the region which has remains of neolithic and megalithic periods.

Chirand is in present-day Bihar. Here archaeologists found bones of buffalo and ox. They also found burnt remains of grains such as wheat, green gram and barley at Chirand.

In early Vedic society, the position of 'raja' was often elected or chosen by the assembly (sabha/samiti) rather than being a strictly hereditary office passed automatically from father to son.

Early tribal conflicts in the Vedic period were frequently centered on acquiring cattle, grazing land, water sources, and capturing people for labor.