Ancient India: Sangam Age and Trade (200 BCE - 300 CE)

The cultural period that succeeded the Neolithic is called Copper Age and it lasted about 4500 BC- 3500 BC

The Northern route, often associated with the Uttarapatha, started from Tamralipty (a major port in Bengal) and connected to various important cities in the Gangetic plain.

In ancient times the Southern area beyond the Vindhyachal ranges was known as the Southern route. The Southern Route passed in two directions. One direction went from Paithan on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra to the places in Bihar. The other route followed the coastal route in South India.

Gaius Plinius Secundus, known as Pliny the Elder" 77 CE, left probably the most important account of trade between Rome and India. According to him, one documented consignment from Muziris to Alexandria consisted of 700-1,700 pounds of nard over 4,700 pounds of ivory and almost 790 pounds of textiles. This has been calculated as worth a total value of 131 talents, enough to purchase 2,400 acres of the best farmland in Egypt. With such staggering profits, it is little wonder that the Roman government in Egypt encouraged and profited by the trade. In this context, he said, "Gold is flowing out of the Roman Empire due to the excessive use of Indian goods." Therefore, the correct answer is (A).
Other options like Aristotle, Socrates and Plato are political thinkers nd Philosophers and have existed during the ancient period 600 BCE.

There were two domestic trade routes in India. The Northern route started from Tamralipty in Bengal to Hastinapur in present Uttar Pradesh. In ancient times the Southern area beyond the Vindhyachal ranges was known as the Southern route. The Southern Route passed in two directions. One direction went from Paithan on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra to the places in Bihar. The other route followed the coastal route in South India.

India had a huge fleet of ships and far ahead in the art of making ships as compared to Europe. Ships were the medium of foreign trade. Goods were imported from different countries like China ware from China, pearl from Srilanka etc. 

In ancient times, goods made in India like cotton clothes, perfume and spices. Foreign trade was carried out through both land and water routes. Exports were bigger than imports. The payments were made in Gold and Silver. This was the time, when India came to be known as 'Golden Bird.'

In ancient times the Southern area beyond the Vindhyachal ranges was known as the Southern route. The Southern Route passed in two directions. One direction went from Paithan on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra to the places in Bihar. The other route followed the coastal route in South India.

India is called "Bird of Gold" in ancient times as India was rich in resources which led favourable trade in India. India received Gold and silver against the export of goods and it accumulated gold from all over the world in India. 

The Indian coastline is vast and stretches over 6,100 kms. The eastern coastline is called the Coromandel Coast, whereas the western coastline is referred to as Konkan and Malabar coast. The numerous ports on this coastline had attracted the Romans from time immemorial. Foreign trade was carried on in those days only through sea-routes. Thus these ports developed and became the cause for the rise of powerful kingdoms in the South like the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Cholas. 

The Sangam literature connotes the ancient Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around Madurai (Pandyan capital): the first over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years before the start of the common era. Hence, Option A is correct.

In the Sangam Age, a well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a variyam (Vari meant tax). Hence, Option A is correct. The village itself in the Sangam times had two assemblies for managing its affairs, Ambalam or Avai and Manram or Podiyil and an officer-in-charge of collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar. Brahmadeya (given to Brahmana) was a tax-free land gift either in form of single plot or whole villages donated to Brahmanas in early medieval India. It was initially practiced by the ruling dynasties and was soon followed up by the chiefs, merchants, feudatories, etc. Hence, the rest of the options are incorrect. 

In the Ancient period, the region ranging from Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh to Kanyakumari was called Tamilakam. Tamilakam refers to the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. 

There are a number of Chola kings as mentioned in the Sangam literature with different surnames like Kill, Valavan, Senni, and Cholan. One of them was Karikalan who ruled in southern part of India during Sangam Period. He is considered to be the greatest of the early Cholas. The name Karikalan means " a man with the charred leg". 

The origins of all the classical languages are really old and unclear. Tamil language is older than 1st century BC when "Tolkappiyam"-one of the world's oldest works on grammar was written. Hence, it makes the present Tamil language nothing less than 2500 years.

According to the Tamil tradition, three Sangams were held at Madurai, Kapatpuram, and Madurai between BCE 300 and CE 300. All Sangam works were believed to be compiled during this period.The poems belonging to Sangam literature were composed by Tamil poets, both men, and women, from various professions and classes of society.

Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda. He is most known for his epic poem Gita Govinda which concentrates on Krishna's love with Radha in a rite of spring.

Sangam
literature is the most ancient literature in Tamil. Silappadhikaram and
Manimekhalai are two of its well known epics. From Sangham literature
we learn about the political and social life in South India during the
period.

Sangam
means a gathering of learned men. The literature compiled in such
gatherings is known as 'Sangam Literature'. It is the most ancient
literature in Tamil. A whole time period is labelled after this known as the Sangam Age.

Silappadikaram, one of the Tamil epics was written by Ilango Adigal. In this book the love story of Kovalan and Madhavi, a dancer, had been depicted.

The Sangam social structure was based on the traditional caste system. There were farmers, shepherds, hunters, fisherman, blacksmiths, weavers, carpenters, merchants, shippers, and priests. The Brahmins were ideal priests and even the chief advisors to the kings. The interesting thing is that though the Brahmins played a crucial and constructive role, the Sangam society was not priest dominated and thus even the other castes enjoyed respect in society.

During the Sangam age the Tamil land was broadly classified into 5 tinais or physiological divisions. They were Kurinchi, Palai, Neytal, Marutham, and Mullai. Each tinais were associated with particular landscapes and occupations.

1. The Sangam Age was the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka spanning from 6th century BC to 3rd century AD.

Tolkappiyam, the early Tamil grammar book written by Tolkapiyar who was a disciple of Agastya, was compiled during the second Sangam held at Kapatpuram.

The ancient Tamil literature or the Sangam songs are broadly classified into Akampattukal and Purampattukal. Akampattukal mainly deals with love while the main theme of Purampattukal is the wars and eulogy of the king.

In
the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary
ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including
slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimia.

The Battle of Talikota in 1565 was a decisive conflict that led to the collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire against the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates.

During Sangam Age, agriculture was the main occupation and the Chera country was noted for its jackfruit, pepper and turmeric.

In
the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary
ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including
slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimia.

Karikala Chola is a legendary figure frequently mentioned in the Sangam epic Silappadhikaram, particularly regarding his construction of dams and irrigation works.

The Sangam Age, spanning roughly from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, is the earliest historical period for which Tamil literature provides detailed records.

Sangam literature depicts a society with economic disparities where the poor included farm laborers, casual workers, and wandering minstrels who relied on patronage.

Mrichchhakatika, or The Little Clay Cart, is a famous Sanskrit play attributed to the playwright Sudraka.

The
Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This
describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. These
beautiful compositions were lost to scholars for many centuries, till
their manuscripts were rediscovered, about hundred years ago.

Manimekalai is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition. It is written by the poet Chithalai Chathanar. Its story is a sequel of an epic ‘Silappatikaram’ that tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Tolkappiyam is the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature and linguists. Tolkappiyam derived from the combination of two words 'Tonmai (ancientness) and 'kappiyam' (literature). It comprises three books- the Ezhuttadikaram, the Solladikaram, and the Poruladikaram. It grammatises the use of words and syntaxes and moves into the higher mode of language analysis.

Both statements are correct: South Indian literature includes the four major Dravidian languages, and Tamil literature is the oldest, having been refined through the three Sangam assemblies.

In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. 

The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum.

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Answer - (B) - Naaladiyar

The three main ruling dynasties of the Sangam Age were the Chola, Chera, and Pandya. The Pallavas rose to prominence later.

The Sangam Age refers to both the literary assemblies held at Madurai and the specific cultural-historical phase in Tamilakam during the early centuries of the Christian era.

The term Sangam refers to a literary guild or assembly of poets and scholars who gathered to compile and critique Tamil literature.

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are two of the five great epics of Tamil literature, representing the pinnacle of Sangam-era literary achievement.

Historical evidence, including Roman coins and accounts, confirms that South Indian ports had extensive trade relations with the Roman Empire during the Sangam Age.

The Rulers of Pandya dynasty ruled over the southern part of India with capital city Madurai.

Mamallapuram, or Mahabalipuram, is a town on a strip of land between the Bay of Bengal and the Great Salt Lake, in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It’s known for its temples and monuments built by the Pallava dynasty in the 7th and 8th centuries. The seafront Shore Temple comprises 3 ornate granite shrines. Krishna’s Butter Ball is a massive boulder balanced on a small hill near the Ganesha Ratha stone temple.

 Aihole, also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in north Karnataka, India dated from the fourth century through the twelfth century CE.

Sangam literature refers to the ancient Tamil literature produced during the Sangam period, roughly between 300 BCE and 300 CE. It is distinct from Sanskrit Puranic or Pali Buddhist texts.

Kamban was a medieval Tamil poet who wrote Ramavataram which is the translation of Ramayana and hence called Kamba Ramayanam.

India's overseas trade with Rome is mentioned in Ptolemy's geography and the Sangam literature. A large number of Roman coins have been found in many of the port cities of India indicating trade. India exported spices, precious stones, fine cloth, perfumes, ivory, iron, dyes rice, peacocks, parrots, monkeys, etc. India received gold and silver coins, wine, glass, and metals in return.

Archaeological excavations at Ishwal in Udaipur have revealed evidence of copper smelting furnaces dating back to the Mauryan period.

South India was important for gold and other precious stones. It was also known for its spice trade. It had trade contacts with the Roman Empire and silk and spices were exported to Roman empire in return for Wine and other luxury products.

The most important item of export from the country was cotton piece goods. India was known for centuries all over the world for the excellence of her products. There was a large consumption of Indian manufacturing in Rome and Greece. The muslin of Decca were known to the Greeks under the name of 'Gangetika.'

There were two domestic trade routes in India: the Northern Route and the Southern Route. The Northern route started from Tamralipty in Bengal to Hastinapur in present Uttar Pradesh. In ancient times the Southern area beyond the Vindhyachal ranges was known as the Southern route. The Southern Route passed in two directions. One direction went from Paithan on the banks of Godavari in Maharashtra to the places in Bihar. The other route followed the coastal route in South India.

The ancient Tamil songs are classified into Akampattukal and Parampattukal. The theme of Akampattukal is mainly personal and family affairs. The collection of these ancient songs is common as Sangam Literature.

Silappatikaram is one of the five great epics of Tamil literature, authored by the Jain monk Ilango Adigal, who was the brother of the Chera king Senguttuvan.

Answer - A - Nanmanikkatikai

The women like men enjoyed a certain freedom of moving around the town, playing on the seashore and riverbeds and joined temple festivals, however, the status of women was not at par with men like contemporary period. Though the women were educated and poetesses. They had no property rights. Women performed Sati. Prostitution was a recognized institution.

Seethalai Saathanaar was the author of the book ‘Manimekalai’. It is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition.  is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition.

Thiru Arutpa is the collection of devotional songs composed by the 19th-century Tamil saint Ramalinga Swamigal, popularly known as Vallalar.

The Sangam literature, describes many kings and dynasties of South India. Poetic compilations by group of poets of different times patronised by many chiefs and kings are, called Sangama. These are, in all, 30,000 lines of poetry arranged in two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku and the Pattupattu. The Sangam literature consists of short and long poems which were composed by a large number of poets in praise of their kings.

The lines given above was written by Auvaiyyar, a popular poet during the Sangam period. The ancient Tamil songs and poems provide more information about the life in the ancient Tamilakam and the collection of Tamil songs is known as Sangam literature. There were other women poets during that period like Kapilar, Paranar etc. These songs exemplified plentiful resources, food habits, dress pattern and believe during that period.

Sangam literature or Sangam text depicts the history of ancient Tamil culture. Which includes early Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. It was written in a verse style. Basically its an anthology of poems composed by various male and female Tamil poets.

In the Sangam age, women and upper higher class men wore two garments, the lower garment, and the upper garment and called Kalingam. They used cotton, silk, and wool to make dresses and the leaf garment was also very popularly used during that period. The ornaments were worn by both men and women. People bartered fish oil, edible yams, honey, ghee, deer meat and wine with rice.

The ancient Tamil songs are classified into Akampattukal and Purampattukal. The theme of Purampattukal is mainly external affairs like war and trade. The collection of these ancient Tamil songs is known as Sangam literature. It is the most ancient among the available Tamil literature compiled in the period between BCE 300 and CE300.

The Kadimaram was a sacred tree believed to protect the town, and its destruction was seen as a sign of the ruler's defeat, making its protection a matter of state importance.

The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas were the three prominent ancient Tamil kingdoms. But The Hoysalas were basically a Kannadiga empire, which ruled a large part of modern-day Karnataka and some parts of Andhra Pradesh between the 10th and the 14th centuries. They contributed much to the growth of Kannada language and literature.

The earliest known literature works in Tamil were collected and compiled by an academy of scholars known as the Sangam. It was the Saiva Saint Appar who used the word Sangam for the earliest known Tamil literature.

The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature because they were collected and classified by the Sangam, which was an academy of scholars.

The Sangam period refers to the ancient period of South Indian history, specifically the Tamil-speaking regions. Tamil is the classical language in which the literature of this era was composed.

Historical trade records indicate that both gold and ivory were significant commodities imported from the African region, including Ethiopia, to ancient India.