Classification of fungi - class-XI

Mycorrhiza refers to the symbiotic association of a fungus and roots of vascular plants. During this association, the fungus colonizes on the roots of the host seed plants either intracellularly or extracellulary and is generally mutualistic rather than pathogenic.

Neottia is a mycotrophic humus plant because it feeds on fungi for obtaining food and energy. This is because these plants lack chlorophyll to make their own food material.

Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between Fungi and roots of higher plants, which grow in mineral deficient soil. It helps to absorb water and minerals like phosphorous from soil for the benefit of plant and in turn gets nutrition from the plant, as fungi cannot synthesize its own food.

A. Hyperparasite is an organism which lives off another parasite.

Role of VAM in Nutrient uptake of crop plants:

VAM stands for Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza, which is a symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots.

VAM (Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) fungi penetrate the cortical cells of the roots, classifying them as endomycorrhiza.

Mycorrhizae extend the root system's reach, helping plants absorb water and nutrients, effectively acting like root hairs, especially in nutrient-poor or adverse soil conditions.

• The symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plants is referred to as mycorrhiza.
• The plant supports the fungus by providing carbohydrates needed for fungal growth, while the fungus helps the plant by increasing its root surface area.
  
• So, the correct answer is 'Mycorrhiza'.

• The ectomycorrhiza's hyphae does not penetrate the cortex cells and they only colonize in the intercellular spaces between them, and this network of hyphae are called as hartig net. So, the first statement is correct.
  
• The endotrophic mycorrhiza are a type of arbascular mycorrhiza.
• Vesicular arbascular mycorrhiza help the plants to grow well by colonizing their roots and helping them to efficiently absorb the phosphate in the soil.
• So the correct option is 'VAM is a special type of endomycorrhiza and absorbs phosphate'.

Mycorrhiza is a useful functional association between fungi and the roots of higher plants in which fungi absorb nutrients from the soil as their roots are not such strong and the tree provides food to the fungi. The best example is Orchid mycorrhiza

Mycorrhiza biofertilizer is also known as VAM, adheres to plants rhizoids leading to development of hyphae. Hyphae boost development and spreading of white root in to soil leading to significant increase in rhizosphere. These hyphae further penetrate and form arbuscules within the root cortical. VAM fungi form a special symbiotic relationship with roots of plant that can enhance growth and survivability of colonized plants. Mycorrhiza biofertilizer is very useful in organic farming as well as normal commercial farming. So, VAM is a symbiotic fungi and not a parasitic algae, saprophytic bacteria and saprophytic fungi. Thus, the correct answer is option B.

Mycorrhizae represent a symbiotic association between plant roots and fungi where both partners benefit mutually, making it a classic example of mutualism.

Azospirillum inoculations are recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat.
Mycorrhizal biofertilizers can be used for pine trees.
Rotenone is an odourless, colourless, crystalline ketonic chemical compound used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the seeds and stems of several plants, such as the jicama vine plant and the roots of several members of Fabaceae.
VAM is a biofertilizer and not a mycoherbicide. 

• Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant.
•  The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, its root system.
•  Mycorrhizae play a role in plant nutrition, soil biology and soil chemistry.
• Hence, Mycorrhiza is the association between fungus and root system of some plants
• So, the correct answer is 'Mycorrhiza'.

Ectomycorrhizas are further differentiated from other mycorrhizas by the formation of a dense hyphal sheath, known as the mantle, surrounding the root surface. The sheathing mantle can be up to 40 Hm thick, with hyphae extending soil. These associations are formed predominantly on the fine root tips of the host distributed unevenly throughout the root surface.

Symbiosis describes close interactions between two or more different species in which both species benefit. A mycorrhiza is defined as a symbiotic relationship between the roots of vascular plants and fungi.

Mycorrhizas are symbiotic associations essential for one or both partners, between a fungus (specialised for life in soils and plants) and a root (or other substrate-contacting organ) of a living plant, that is primarily responsible for nutrient transfer. Mycorrhizas occur in a specialised plant organ where intimate contact results from synchronised plant-fungus development. Mycorrhizal fungi are a major component of the soil microflora in many ecosystems, but usually have limited saprophytic abilities. They are considered to have many important roles in natural and managed ecosystems.

Mycorrhizae is the symbiotic association between the plant roots and fungi. The fungi colonize the living root tissue during active plant growth. The relationship between plants and fungi is symbiotic because the plant obtains phosphate and other minerals through the fungus, while the fungus obtains sugars from the plant root. 

In mutualism or symbiosis both the organisms in the association are mutually benefitted and further this association is obligatory, i.e., necessary for the existence of both organisms. Mycorrhiza is an example of symbiosis. It is an association between roots of higher plants and fungal hyphae. The fungal hyphae supply water and nutrients to the plant and in turn get food from the plant. So, both the organisms are mutually benefitted.

Mycorrhiza is the association of fungi and the roots of plants. It is a symbiotic association where fungus helps in increasing the surface area of absorption. The mycorrhiza fungi help in the mineral uptake for the plant. The plant provides shelter and protection to the fungus. The fungus also obtains sugars from the plant.

Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and roots of higher plants. Mycorrhizae present in the soil help in the uptake of minerals from soil. These organisms also help in the binding of roots to the soil. Since it is active transport in the roots, the mycorrhizae help in this active transport of minerals.

Symbiosis describes close interactions between two or more different species. In symbiotic relationship, the two species benefits. A mycorrhiza is defined as a symbiotic relationship between the roots of plants and fungi. The fungal symbiont gets shelter and food from the plant which, in turn, acquires an array of benefits such as better uptake of phosphorus, salinity and drought tolerance, maintenance of water balance, and overall increase in plant growth and development.

VAM (Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) is defined by the presence of symbiotic fungi that form arbuscules and vesicles within plant roots.

Mycorrhizae primarily enhance plant growth by increasing the surface area for the absorption of inorganic ions, particularly phosphorus, from the soil.

They prefer marshy environment and utilize dead and decaying material as food. Oligotrophic soil ( in between layers) have the above mentioned requirements in good quantities.Thus, the fungi prefer the oligotrophic soil for their survival

The fungi involved in VAM (endomycorrhiza) belong to the order Glomerales, which were formerly classified under Zygomycetes.

Ectomycorrhiza is a well-known symbiotic association where the fungus forms a mantle around the root, common in many forest trees.

Mycorrhiza involves a symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots. In most cases, the fungal hyphae penetrate the root cortex but do not enter the vascular cylinder or the root apex.

The cortex is only one cell thick and these cells are packed with fungal hyphae. The nutrient exchange between the fungus and plant takes place at this interface and is extremely efficient

Ectomycorrhiza is a type of symbiotic association typically found in woody plants, such as trees and shrubs, in temperate forest ecosystems.

In ectomycorrhiza, the fungal hyphae form a mantle around the root and grow between the cortical cells (intercellularly) without penetrating the cell walls. Endomycorrhiza (including VAM) involves intracellular penetration.

Oligotrophic soils are nutrient-poor. Mycorrhizal associations help plants survive in these conditions by significantly increasing the surface area for nutrient absorption, particularly phosphorus.

The ectomycorrhiza is an association that takes place at the surface of the roots whereas the endomycorrizal fungi penetrate into the root cortex and form arbuscules within the root cells.

Mycorrhizae are primarily mutualistic associations that enhance the plant's ability to absorb water and mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, from the soil.

Roots of most terrestrial plants are colonized by symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are capable of mobilizing inorganic phosphates or compound phosphates present in the soil to the plant an a source of Phosphorus.

Full form of VAM is Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza. It is formed by the symbiotic association between certain phycomycetous fungi and angiosperm roots. Thus VAM is a mycorrhiza.

Symbiotic association between roots of higher plants and fungi is termed as mycorrhiza.

Fungi forms symbiotic association with roots of higher plants, known as mycorrhizae. When fungal hyphae penetrate through cortex cells of root, these are called as Endomycorrhizae. These are also called vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae or VAM, because cortical cells swell and form vesicles or arbuscles. it has significant role in phosphorus nutrition in plants. hence, Option A is correct. 

Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to soil structure by secreting organic acids, such as carbonic acid, which help weather minerals and release nutrients, while also producing glomalin that helps aggregate soil particles.

Mycorrhiza is an association between a fungus and the root of the higher plant, for example, pinus, eucalyptus etc.

Mycorrhiza is a type of symbiotic relationship. It is seen when two organisms have mutually beneficial relationship with each other. In this cas, the roots of plants host fungi, which helps them obtain water, sulphur, phosphates from soil. They also help them fix nitrogen. Inturn, fungi obtain nutrition and shelter 

Fungi present in the roots of the plants show a symbiotic relationship with each other. It helps the roots of the plants to absorb more nutrients and water from the soil. It also helps them obtain better resistance to environmental stresses. In return, plants provide shelter and nutrition to mycorrhiza.

Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic relation seen between certain plants and fungi. The fungi live on the roots of certain plants and help them absorb water and nutrients from the soil in a better way. In return, plants provide shelter and nutrition to fungi. So, both the organisms mutually befit each other.

Orchids and orchid bees are a classic example of mutualism. The flowers depend on the bees to pollinate them so they can reproduce and, in return, the bees get fragrance compounds they use during courtship displays and mycorrhizae are symbiotic relationships that form between fungi and plants. The fungi colonize the root system of a host plant, providing increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis. 

Lichens are classified as per their fungal component and the species  are given the same binomial name as per the fungus species in the lichen. The  partner in a lichen which enables photosynthesis is called as photobiont and the algal photobionts are called as phycobionts. Trebouxia, a genus of green algae is most common phycobiont and occurs in 40% of all lichens.
Since, the fungal component of the lichen may be a ascomycete or a basidiomycete, the associated lichens to ascomycetes are called as ascolichens.
Vesicular Arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM fungi) forms symbiosis with higher plants. This type of symbiosis helps in the intake of nutrients especially phosphorus.

A mycorrhiza is a harmonious relationship between an organism and the underlying roots of a vascular host plant. 

Mycorrhiza is the term used to define the association of fungi on roots of vascular plants. In the case of woody plants such as pine, birch and oak, the fungi belonging to the phyllum; Basidomycota and Acomycota form the mycorrhizal assoociations. Ectomycorrhizas, such as Amanita and Boletus form mycorrhizas on Pinus.

Biologically, mycorrhiza is defined as an association of fungi and roots of vascular plants. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus tends to colonise the host plant roots either intracellular or extracellular. However, this is a symbiotic association, which is generally mutualistic and rarely pathogenic.

Claviceps purpurea is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and related cereal and forae plants. Consumption of grains or seeds contaminated with the survival structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium, can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals. Ergotine is a powerful astringent alkaloid extracted from ergot as a brown, amorphous, bitter substance. It produces hallucinating effect on humans. Thus, the correct answer is option A.

Ergometrine, Ergotoxine, Ergotamine all are alkaloids of medicinal importance extracted from Claviceps. Claviceps purpurea is an ergot fungus that grows on the ears of rye and related cereal and forae plants. Consumption of grains or seeds contaminated with the survival structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium, can cause ergotism in humans and other mammals. Ergotine is a powerful astringent alkaloid extracted from ergot as a brown, amorphous, bitter substance. It produces hallucinating effect on humans.

'Ergot of rye' is caused by Claviceps purpurea. Ergot is a fungus that grows on rye and less commonly on other grasses such as wheat. 

Out of the given fungi, Rhizopus, Mucor, and Saccharomyces are saprophytes. Puccinia is an obligate parasite causing rust disease in plants, and Albugo is a parasitic fungus causing white rust on crucifers. Thus, exactly three of them are saprophytic in nutrition.

Heterothallism was discovered by Blakeslee (1904) in Mucor mucedo.

Zygomycotina is composed of organisms that are characterized by the formation of ribbon-like aseptate hyphae and sexual reproduction with the formation of zygospores. The vast majority of human zygomycotic disease is caused by the members of the family Mucoraceae. This family includes zygomycetes that produce asexual sporangiospores in sporangia. Sporangium producers which may or may not produce stolons and rhizoids and included in the genera Mucor and Rhizomucor. Thus, the correct answer is option 'Zygomycotina'.  

Ergot of Rye is a plant disease that is caused by the fungus Claviceps purpurea. The so-called ergot that replaces the grain of the rye is a dark, purplish sclerotium.

Claviceps purpurea is the fungal pathogen causing ergot disease of rye. It infects rye grains, producing sclerotia containing toxic alkaloids. Smut (Ustilago), rust (Puccinia), and powdery mildew (various fungi) are different plant diseases.

Mucor and Rhizopus are fungi belonging to the family Mucoraceae. Mucor is called as pin mould. Rhizopus is known as black mould. They are saprophytic fungi that grow on dead and decaying organic material. The fungal mycelium of Mucor and Rhizopus look like fine cottony threads on the surface of the bread. Thus the correct answer is option C.

In Rhizopus, if gametangial fusion fails, the gametangia may develop into thick-walled spores known as parthenospores.

Reproduction in Mucor takes place by isogametes. Mucor reproduces both in the sexual and asexual methods. While asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of spores, sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation of isogamy. 

The black color of bread mold (Rhizopus) is primarily due to the mass of black-colored sporangia containing spores.

Claviceps purpurea is a fungus that under natural conditions infects rye and triticale and many grasses.

Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs.

Heterothallic fungi have sexes that reside in different individuals. The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores. Mucor is a heterothallic fungi.

The zygospore of Mucor is covered by a thick wall and is a resting spore which means it undergoes a resting period, to avoid unfavorable environmental conditions

In mucor each meiospore, after liberation, germinates like sporangiospore and forms a new mycelium like the mother thallus.

The essential conditions for the growth of mucor in a piece of bread are having a shaded place with the optimum temperature of $25^o C $ and relative humidity of 95 millibars

Mucor mucedo reproduces asexually. When erect hyphal sporangiophores are formed. The tip of the sporangiophore swells to form a globose sporangium that contains uninucleate, haploid sporangiospores. 

In mucor during sexual reproduction, compatible strains form short, specialized hyphae called gametangia. At the point where two complementary gametangia fuse, a thick-walled, spherical zygosporangium develops. The zygosporangium typically contains a single zygospore.

Fomes causes wood rotting or heart rot in trees, which is correctly matched in pair 1. Peziza is a cup fungus that often grows on dung and is thus coprophilous, making pair 2 correctly matched. Primary rock colonizers are typically lichens, not Nidularia, so pair 3 is incorrect. Therefore, pairs 1 and 2 are correct.

Mucor is a microbial genus of molds commonly found in soil, digestive systems, plant surfaces etc. During sexual reproduction, compatible strains form short, specialized hyphae called gametangia. At the point where two gametangia fuse, a thick-walled, spherical zygosporangium develops. The zygosporangium typically contains a single zygospore.

Ergotism is caused by Claviceps in cereal grains (rye) and is the oldest known mycotoxin. Mold in the feed replaces grain with a hard black mass called an ergot. Ergotism killed thousands in the middle ages  and it produces alkaloids. Toxins affect the nervous, vascular (vasoconstriction and resultant gangrene), and endocrine systems. Clinical signs include decreased food intake and growth; necrosis of beak, comb, and toes; distorted feather development; and enteritis. Ergotism primarily affects leghorns and other laying breeds and only trace amounts remain in the meat.

Mucor is a saprotrophic fungus. The cell wall of the fungus contains considerable amounts of chitosan. Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed β-(1→4)linked D glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine. It has commercial application in agriculture, biopesticide, and winemaking. Thus the correct answer is option C.

Mucor belongs to the class zygomycetes. The members of zygomycetes bear non-motile non-flagellated gametes.

Sexual reproduction takes place during the unfavourable condition by means of gametangial copulation. The gametangia look alike and by conjugation, they give rise to zygospore.