Skeletal and digestive system - class-V

Indigestion is inability to properly digest food resulting in abdominal distension due to gas or flatus. It is caused by overeating, spicy food, anxiety and disturbed secretions of digestive tract.

The medulla oblongata is the part of the brainstem that controls involuntary functions, including the vomiting reflex.

Haemorrhoids which is commonly known as piles occurs due to the swelling of veins in anus or rectum. 

Lactase is the enzyme required to break down lactose, the sugar found in milk. Its production often decreases with age, leading to lactose intolerance.

Jaundice is a yellowish pigmentation of the skin, the conjunctival membranes over the sclerae (whites of the eyes), and other mucous membranes caused by high blood bilirubin levels. This hyperbilirubinemia subsequently causes increased levels of bilirubin in the extracellular fluid. Concentration of bilirubin in blood plasma is normally below 1.2 mg/dL (<25µmol/L). A concentration higher than approx. 3 mg/dL (>50µmol/L) leads to jaundice.

Hepatitis A is a disease caused by infection from the hepatitis A virus (HAV). HAV has been called as epidemic hepatitis, epidemic jaundice, infectious hepatitis, catarrhal jaundice, HA and type A hepatitis in the past.
Therefore, the correct answer is option A.

Low blood sodium is also known as hyponatremia. Sodium is an electrolyte. It helps maintain the balance of water in and around your cells. Sodium is important for proper muscle and nerve function. It also keeps your blood pressure stable. Low blood sodium occurs when water and sodium are out of balance. Either there is too much water or too little sodium. Many factors can cause low blood sodium. Sodium levels may get too low if your body is losing too much water and electrolytes. It may also be a symptom of certain medical conditions. Causes of low sodium include: severe vomiting or diarrhea, taking certain medications, including antidepressants and pain medications, use of diuretics (water pills), drinking too much water during exercise (although this is very rare) etc. Calcium, potassium and iron are not reduced in blood stream by excessive vomiting and diarrhoea. Thus, option B is correct.

The diarrheal disease control programme was started in the country in 1978. The main
objective of the programme was to prevent death due to dehydration caused by diarrheal
diseases among children under 5 years of age due to dehydration. 

Oral rehydration solution (ORS) is a fluid used to prevent or treat dehydration, most commonly that caused by diarrhea. It involves drinking water with modest amounts of sugar and salt added, while continuing to eat.

Diarrhoea is a disease caused by the virus like norovirus and bacteria like clostridium, salmonella. It is characterised by the frequent passing of loose or watery stools. Common symptoms of diarrhoea include skin tenting, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, cramping, fever and bloody stools. Hence option A is correct.

•  After washing hands, we have to scrub between fingers and under nails, if a nail brush is available.
•  Rinse with clear water. Finally, dry hands thoroughly using a clean paper or cloth towel or under an electric air dryer.
•  To avoid introducing additional bacteria, do not rub your hands together under the electric air dryer. Hence, At work, the best way to dry your hands after washing is using a paper towel.

Jaundice occurs if there is a dysfunction of the normal metabolism or excretion of bilirubin. Common signs and symptoms seen in individuals with jaundice include: yellow discolouration of the skin, mucous membranes, and the whites of the eyes,  light-coloured stools, dark-colored urine and itching of the skin. The underlying disease process may result in additional signs and symptoms. These may include: nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, fever, weakness, loss of appetite, headache, confusion, swelling of the legs and abdomen, and newborn jaundice.

Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old, and is responsible for killing around 7,60,000 children every year. Diarrhoeal diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria and viruses are transmitted via the faecal-oral route. The pathogens discharged in the faeces of an infected person may enter the body of another susceptible person through the mouth. This may occur among children ingesting food or water contaminated with human excreta. 

Roughage or dietary fiber as it is known is the indigestible portion of the carbohydrate in the food derived from plants. These are of two types - the soluble fiber and and the insoluble one. The insoluble fiber is metabolically
inert and being prebiotic and ferment in the large intestine. These bulking fibers tends to absorb water as they move through the digestive system which helps in easy defecation. Hence, consuming a diet without roughage will lead to constipation.

Oral rehydration therapy is a fluid replacement strategy used to prevent or treat dehydration. Dehydration is most commonly caused by diarrhoea. It involves drinking water with required amounts of sugar and salt added present in oral rehydration salts (ORS).

Jaundice refers to the yellow color of the skin and whites of the eyes caused by excess bilirubin in the blood. Bilirubin is a yellow pigment that is formed by the breakdown of dead red blood cells in the liver. Normally, the liver gets rid of bilirubin along with old red blood cells. Jaundice occurs when the liver does not break down bilirubin the way it is supposed to because the liver might be damaged and unable to perform this process. 

Diarrhea is a condition that’s characterized by the appearance of loose, watery stools or a frequent need to have a bowel movement. Diarrhea can be related to a viral or bacterial infection, or it can be the result of food poisoning. Rotavirus, norovirus and adenovirus are the common viruses which causes diarrhea. Campylobacter, Shigella are the common bacterias which causes diarrhea. Hence option C is correct.

Frequent and profuse defecation of liquid faeces is called diarrhoea. It is caused by increased motility and decreased absorption by intestines. Frequent diarrhoea can result in dehydration, sunken eyes, dry mouth and lips, abdominal pain, bleeding from rectum etc. Hence option D is the correct answer. 

Dietary fiber is the indigestible portion of the carbohydrate in the food derived from plants. These are of two types - the soluble fiber and the insoluble one. The insoluble fiber is metabolically inert and being prebiotic and ferment in the large intestine. These bulking fibers tend to absorb water as they move through the digestive system which helps in easy defecation. Hence, consuming a diet with high fiber content will help prevent constipation.

Some of the common practices to prevent diarrhea are as follows: wash your hands before and after preparing food. In addition, wash your hands after handling uncooked meat, using the toilet, changing diapers, sneezing, coughing and blowing your nose. After putting soap on your hands, rub your hands together for at least 20 seconds. Use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer when you can not get to a sink. Apply the hand sanitizer as you would use hand lotion, making sure to completely cover the fronts and backs of both hands. Use a product that contains at least 60 percent alcohol. 

Difficulty in digestion is called indigestion. It occurs as a symptom of diseases like gastroesophageal reflux disease, ulcers, thyroidism, pancratitis and gall bladder diseases. It can cause abdominal pain, burning stomach, nausea, belching and vomiting.

Digestion is the process in which the food gets digested and broken down into smaller components which are absorbed by the cells of the body. If the process of digestion is not carried out properly, it might lead to bowel problems like constipation. There should be a balanced diet which includes fibers. Plenty of water should be taken which will prevent the problems like constipation and acidity. The food should be properly masticated before swallowing because the basic digestion starts in the mouth.

Indigestion is the problem when the food is not digested properly. This may occur due to the acid in the stomach, exercise after meals, diet is taken in hurry, the food contains excess fat or the food is not chewed properly. When the person has taken a balanced diet which contains fibres, proteins, sugars, vitamins, then there are fewer chances that the person will suffer from the problems of indigestion. When the food is chewed properly, the food gets properly digested. 

Digestion is the process in which the food gets digested and broken down into smaller components which are absorbed by the cells of the body. If the process if digestion is not carried out properly might lead to bowel problems like constipation. There is production of acid and gas in the stomach, which results in problems like bloating. There is movement of the gas in the stomach which is described as growling stomach. This may also be associated with pain in the stomach.

Peristalsis pushes food through the lower oesophagus into the stomach. When the peristaltic movements of the stomach and oesophagus reverse their normal direction, it is called reverse peristalsis. In this situation, the contraction of abdominal muscles and diaphragm pushes food back through the oesophagus and out through mouth which results to vomiting. So, the correct option is C.

Jaundice is a condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin and eyes, which occurs due to the buildup of bilirubin in the blood. This is primarily caused by dysfunction or disease of the liver, which is responsible for processing bilirubin.

A heterocrine gland (also known as a mixed gland) performs both exocrine and endocrine functions. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum (exocrine) and hormones like insulin and glucagon into the blood (endocrine).

Jaundice is a disease which causes yellowing of skin and eyes which occurs due to the presence of the excess of pigment bilirubin. Pigment bilirubin is formed in the body as a result of the breakdown of worn out RBCs in the liver and is regularly excreted through kidneys. Jaundice occurs if the liver is not able to metabolize bilirubin and is caused by the virus. It can also lead to inflamed liver or obstructed bile duct. Too much bilirubin can leak into the tissues and causes yellowing of skin and eyes.

• When spoiled food is consumed, this may lead to indigestion. There are many problems which are associated with indigestion problems. 
• There is vomiting sensation due to the acid-filled in the stomach. 
• There are problems like belching in which the gas and the acid in the stomach are thrown towards the mouth. 
• There is burning sensation in the heart, chest, and throat due to the excessive acid in the stomach.
• Thus, the correct answer is option D. 

Anxiety and spicy food can both irritate the gastric lining or disrupt normal digestive motility. This combination commonly leads to indigestion, which involves discomfort, bloating, or pain in the upper abdomen.

Enteritis is most often caused by ingesting cysts with food and drinks that are contaminated with the cyst of bacteria or viruses. The germs settle in the small intestine and cause inflammation and swelling.

Emphysema is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by damage to the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. It is a disorder of the respiratory system, not the digestive system.

Diarrhoea is defined by the frequent passage of loose or liquid stools. This condition is often caused by reduced absorption of water and nutrients in the intestines.

An unbalanced diet like pizza, soft drinks and burger etc, lack essentials nutrients required by the body. This kind of poor diet cause obesity and fatigue and make the body unhealthy.

Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine, and elevated levels may indicate certain diseases. It is responsible for the yellow colour of bruises and the yellow discolouration in jaundice. Its subsequent breakdown products, such as stercobilin, cause the brown colour of faeces.

In jaundice, skin and eyes turns yellow and the liver gets affected. So, the correct answer is (d).

Diarrhoea is a common symptom of gastrointestinal infections caused by a wide range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses and protozoa. However, just a handful of organisms are responsible for most acute cases of childhood diarrhoea.  Other major bacterial pathogens include E. coli, Shigella, Campylobacter and Salmonella, along with V. cholerae during epidemics.

Jaundice is not a disease. It is a physical finding on an exam. It can be present in newborns if they have a rapid breakdown of blood or if they were born before their livers matured. It can happen when the bile duct gets blocked by a gallstone or a tumour of the pancreas. It can happen in many forms of liver disease. Among these is hepatitis A, a viral infection. It is spread by contaminated food or water. So jaundice can appear due to drinking water contaminated with the virus.

The stool of a person is whitish grey colored due to malfunction of 'liver'.

The most common skin manifestation associated with “hepatitis” is the yellowing of the skin (jaundice) and the sclera, or white part of the eye. Jaundice may be associated with a newly acquired or acute hepatitis B infection.

Acute radiation syndrome often manifests early with gastrointestinal symptoms. Nausea and vomiting are classic early signs of significant radiation exposure.

Ejection of stomach contents through the mouth is called 'vomiting'.

In diarrhoea, absorption of food is reduced. So, the correct answer is (c)

Jaundice is a viral disease. It caused by hepatitis virus A, B, C and D. Hepatitis virus causes the liver inflammation. As the old red blood cells travel to the liver, where they are broken down, from the red blood cells broken a yellow coloured pigment is released called bilirubin. When the bilirubin level rises in the liver and it affects the bile duct, which affects the digestive system. 

Vomit center is located in 'medulla'.

Anxiety and eating spicy food together in an otherwise normal human may lead to 'indigestion'.

Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a condition, which is characterised by a yellowish discolouration of the skin and the whites of the eyes. The yellow colouration is caused by an excess amount of the bile pigment known as bilirubin in the body.

Anxiety, food poisoning and over-eating are the causes of indigestion. So, the correct answer is (d).

When children play bare footed in pools of dirty water and flood water, they may suffer from diseases like Bilharzia, infective hepatitis and diarrhoea.

Rehydration can be accomplished using solutions with higher sodium, i.e., 75-90 mmol/L. These are termed rehydration solutions (ORS). High sodium rehydrating solutions used to treat acute dehydration may be used for maintenance by giving the solution alternately on a 1-to-1 basis with a no-sodium or low-sodium fluid such as water or breast milk. Poliovirus is usually spread from person to person through infected faeces entering the mouth. It may also be spread by food or water containing human faeces and ultimately reaches the central nervous system (CNS). Virulent Escherichia coli strains cause either non inflammatory diarrhoea (watery diarrhoea) or inflammatory diarrhoea (dysentery with stools usually containing blood, mucus and leukocytes). Shigella is one of the leading bacterial causes of diarrhoea worldwide. The characteristic clinical syndrome associated with rhinovirus infection is the common cold. 

Schistosomiasis infection is acquired when people come into contact with fresh water infested with the larval forms of parasitic blood flukes, known as schistosomes. The microscopic adult worms live in the veins draining the urinary tract and intestines. Eggs from the mature worms are passed out (excreted) in the faeces or urine of an infected person. These eggs can get into fresh water if it is contaminated with human sewage. Symptoms can be bloody diarrhoea, abdominal pain, right upper quadrant pain, cramps.

Genotype of the man --> A$^H$A (where A$^H$ is the chromosome carrying dominant gene for haemolytic jaundice and A is the homologous chromosome carrying the normal allele).
Genotype of woman --> AA
P generation :          A$^H$A    X     AA

Vomiting is considered as the uncontrolled form of reflex action. During this response, the contents of the stomach are thrown in the upward direction and removed from the mouth. The contents of the stomach and water are lost during this process. This leads to drying of the tissues of the alimentary canal. This is called as dry heaven. This condition is observed when there are continuous episodes of vomiting.

Vomiting is considered as the uncontrolled form of reflex action. During this response, the contents of the stomach are thrown in the upward direction and removed from the mouth. This response can be given against different stimulus like smell or taste. Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix. Meningitis is the inflammation of the brain or the spinal cord. The inflammation of these regions may disturb the normal process of digestion. This can result in vomiting. Vomiting may be caused due to ulcers which might result in indigestion. 

Tetanus also called lockjaw disease is a serious bacterial infection that causes painful muscle spasms and can even lead to death, while diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery are disorders related to the digestive system.

Lumbar vertebrae are found in the 'abdominal region'.

1. A major bulk of body weight; 45−50% is contributed by muscles.
   2. All muscle cells share four primary properties that distinguish them from other cells : excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
   3. Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified: skeletal, smooth and cardiac.
   4. Cardiac muscles are striated in appearance and myogenic in nature.
   So, none of the given options are incorrect.

Femur or thighbone is the longest bone in the body. The head of the femur fits into the hip socket and the bottom end connects to your knee. The two bones beneath the knee that make up your shin are tibia and fibula. The upper and lower leg are connected by a hinge joint.

All human beings respire air through the process of inhalation and exhalation. That is inhaled passes through the entire respiratory tract and reaches the lungs. Lungs are respiratory organs located in the thoracic cavity of our body.  The partial pressure of the air inside the lungs guides the process of inhalation and exhalation. They are surrounded by ribs. Ribs are bones that together form the rib cage in our thorax. The rib cage protects the lungs.

The backbone or vertebral column or spine is a part of the axial skeleton. The backbone is made up of the bones, muscles, tendons, and other tissues that reach from the base of the skull to the tailbone. The backbone encloses the spinal cord and the fluid surrounding the spinal cord.

• The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen.
• The bones of the pelvis or pelvic bones are the hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx. Each hip bone contains three bones— the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
  
• The pelvis  It's located between the abdomen and the legs. This area provides support for the intestines and also contains the bladder and reproductive organs.
• Hence The enclosed body part below the stomach is occupied by the pelvis.
• So, the correct answer is 'Pelvis'.

The dorsal, ventral and lateral Part of thoracic basket are respectively formed of thoracic vertebrae, sternum and ribs`.

Half of the vertebrate pelvic girdle consists of three bones ilium, ischium and Pubis which fuse together in adult to be called innominate bone Chip bone).

• The vertebral column in adults have four curvatures and are classified as- primary or secondary curvatures.
  

• It is retained in two regions as the thoracic curve which consists of thoracic vertebrae and the sacrococcygeal curve.
  

The breastbone is the flat bone which is located at the center of the chest. Ribs are attached to it forming ribcage. Backbone is the vertebrae extending from the skull to pelvis. The ribs are attached to vertebrae from behind.

The bones and muscles together form the structural framework of the body. The skeleton  constitutes of bones and various types of joints. Muscles are attached to the bones, providing the strength needed for locomotion (movement).