Cells in immune system - class-XII

Kupffer cells are specialized macrophages located in the liver that play a key role in the immune system by phagocytosing pathogens and debris.

Phagocytes have the ability to phagocytose or kill foreign cells and particles like pathogens by ingesting them. Many blood cells have this function, including monocytes, neutrophils and macrophages. Basophils do not have phagocytic activity.

Thus, the correct answer is 'Basophil.'

Among the White blood cells (WBCs) four cells have the phagocytic ability. The neutrophils, monocytes, eosionophils and basophils. The basophils and the eosinophils have very less phagocytic ability when compared to the phagocytic ability of neutrophils and monocytes. When monocytes leave the blood and enter tissue spaces they grow and modify to form macrophages which still have the phagocytic ability. Thus, the correct option is B.

A macrophage is a type of phagocyte, which is a cell responsible for detecting, engulfing and destroying pathogens and apoptotic cells. Macrophages are produced through the differentiation of monocytes, which turn into macrophages when they leave the blood. Macrophages also play a role in alerting the immune system to the presence of invaders. Phagocytosis is the term used to describe the engulfing and destroying of defective or microbial cells. When inflammation occurs, monocytes undergo a series of changes to become macrophages and target cells that need eliminating. Once engulfed, cellular enzymes inside the macrophage destroy the ingested particle. Some macrophages act as scavengers, removing dead or necrotic cells while others provide host immunity by engulfing microbes.

An antibody also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig) is a large, Y-shaped protein molecule produced by B lymphocytes, that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens (antigens) such as bacteria and viruses.

Phagocytosis is a process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles It is normally important in bacterial infections.

The cells involved in the immune system are white blood cells, or leukocytes, which destroy disease-causing organisms or substances. The two types of leukocytes are phagocytes and lymphocytes. The most common type of phagocyte is the neutrophil, which primarily fights bacteria. The two kinds of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and either stay there and mature into B cells, or they leave for the thymus gland, where they mature into T cells.

Leucocytes or the white blood cells are the disease-fighting white blood cells that identify and eliminate pathogens. Hence, they are one of the chief components of the innate immune system. A high white blood cell count is referred to as leucocytosis. The innate leucocytes include phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils and basophils.

Interleukin 2 (IL-2) is an interleukin, a type of signaling molecule that regulates the activities of white blood cells (leukocytes, often lymphocytes) that are responsible for immunity. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), also known as colony-stimulating factor 2 (CSF2), a monomeric glycoprotein secreted by macrophages, T cells, mast cells, NK cells, endothelial cells and fibroblasts that function as a cytokine -  a white blood cell growth factor and stimulate stem cells to produce granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and monocytes. Monocytes exit the circulation and migrate into tissue, whereupon they mature into macrophages and dendritic cells. Thus, it is part of the immune system. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a cell signaling protein (cytokine) involved in systemic inflammation and is one of the cytokines that make up the acute phase reaction. It is produced chiefly by activated macrophages. The primary role of TNF is in the regulation of immune cells. Thus, the correct answer is option D.

In humans, the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is referred to as the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) system.

Effector cells of the immune system, such as activated T-cells or plasma cells, typically have a short lifespan, often lasting only a few days to a few weeks before undergoing apoptosis.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) display antigens on their surface via MHC molecules to T-cells, which is a critical step in initiating cell-mediated immunity.

• A T cell or T lymphocyte is a type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells, by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus.
  
• B cells, also known as B lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system by secreting antibodies. B-cells bind to an antigen, receive help from a cognate helper T cell and differentiate into a plasma cell that secretes large amounts of antibodies and help in phagocytosis.
  
• Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
  

• The acquired immunity involves two types of cells: B-cells and T-cells.T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (relating to antibodies).
• Like all blood cells, B(B lymphocyte)- and T-cells9T-lymphocyte) are produced in the bone marrow. B-cells mature in the bone marrow and  T-cells travel through the bloodstream to the thymus gland and mature in the thymus gland.
• Hence B- and T-cells required for the immune system are produced in Bone marrow.
• So, the correct answer is 'Bone marrow'.

Adenosine deaminase deficiency or ADA deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder that causes immunodeficiency. Gene therapy is a method to treat this. A functional ADA complementary DNA is inserted to the lymphocytes and then grown in an artificial culture. After the growth ADA cDNA is returned to the patient. 

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a collection of genes coding for MHC molecules found on the surface of all nucleated cells of the body. There are two classes of MHC molecules involved in adaptive immunity, MHC I and MHC II. MHC I molecules are found on all nucleated cells, they present normal self-antigens as well as abnormal or non-self pathogens to the effector T cells involved in cellular immunity. In contrast, MHC II molecules are only found on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells; they present abnormal or non-self pathogen antigens for the initial activation of T cells.

There are 2 forms of MHC, namely MHC class I and class II proteins. They play important role in the adaptive immunity. They present peptides on the cell surface for recognition by T cells. Helper T cells are part of adaptive immunity. They recognize and activate B cells to secrete antibodies and macrophages to destroy foreign bodies. They also help activate cytotoxic T cells to kill infected target cells. B cells are part of humoral immune response. They recognize soluble antigens. Antigen-presenting cell (APC) are those cells with detects, engulfs and digests antigen. 

Interferons are antiviral proteins produced by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected cells from viral replication, but they do not directly kill viruses. B-cells produce antibodies, T-cells mediate cell-mediated immunity, and macrophages are phagocytic.

IgD provides the activation signals to the B cells by acting as antigen receptors on the B cell surface. The B cells on being activated begins the immune defense mechanism of the body. So, the correct option is 'IgD'.

B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system by secreting antibodies. BCRs allow the B cell to bind to a specific antigen, against which it will initiate an antibody response. They provide immunity by producing antibodies.

So, the correct option is 'producing antibodies'.

T cells (thymus cells) and B cells ( bone marrow- or bursa-derived cells) are the major cellular components of the adaptive immune response. T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are primarily responsible for humoral immunity (relating to antibodies).

Organ transplant rejection is primarily a cell-mediated immune response. Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells) recognize foreign MHC molecules on the transplanted tissue and destroy the cells.

T-lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow but differentiated in thymus glands. T lymphocytes play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells by the presence of a T-cell receptor  on the cell surface. They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus.

Histiocytes destroy bacteria by phagocytosis. A histiocyte is an animal cell that is part of the mononuclear phagocyte system also known as the reticuloendothelial system or lymphoreticular system. The mononuclear phagocytic system is part of the organism's immune system. The histiocyte is a tissue macrophage or a dendritic cell.

WBCs fight against the infections. White blood cells account for only about 1 percent of the blood but their impact is significant. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are essential for good health and protection against illness and disease. Think of white blood cells as your immunity cells. In a sense, they are continually at war. They flow through your bloodstream to battle viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders that threaten your health. When your body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness. Thus, option A is correct. 

Associated lymphoid organs are composed of lymphoid tissue, and are the sites either of lymphocyte production, or of lymphocyte activation.

White blood cells or WBCs are also called leukocytes. They are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All leukocytes are produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell.

WBCs or the white blood cells are the types of blood cells that are main cells of the immune system. The immune system responds to a particular pathogen to give you active or acquired immunity. The surface of every cell is covered with molecules that give it a unique set of characteristics. These molecules are called antigens. Antigens are generally fragments of protein or carbohydrate molecules. There are millions of different antigens and each one has a unique shape that can be recognized by the white blood cells of your immune system. The white blood cells then produce antibodies to match the shape of the antigens. Thus, option B is correct.

Clonal selection is a process to determine how B or T cell recognizes an antigen that enters the body is selected from the per-existing cell pool of differing antigen specificities and its proliferation to generate a clonal cell population that eliminates the antigen.
Thus, the correct answer is option B.

Exogenous antigens are taken up by antigen-presenting cells and presented on MHC class II molecules to helper T-cells (CD4+). MHC class I molecules are typically involved in presenting endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T-cells.

The thymus is the primary lymphoid organ where lymphocytes originate and/or mature. T-lymphocytes originate from lymphoid progenitor cells in thymus via three developmental stages, namely pro, pre and immature T cells. The immature T cells mature in thymus only. B cell originates and matures in red bone marrow, fibrinogen is the clotting factor 1 in blood and phagocytes are the type of WBC. Thus, the correct answer is E.

Phagocytes are the component of the non specific immune response. The encounter of B cell with a specific antigen activates its clonal expansion which in turn gives rise to plasma cell and memory cells.  A plasma cell is a mature B cell that serves in mass production of antibodies against a specific antigen. Pathogens are the disease-causing organisms that carry antigens. Fibrinogen is involved in the clotting process. T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Thus, the correct answer is A.

The endogenous pathway is used to present cellular peptide fragments broken down by proteosomes on the cell surface of MHC class I molecules. Transporter associated with antigen processing spans the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and transports the peptides into the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Once the peptide is transported into the ER lumen it binds to the cleft of the MHC class I molecule, stabilizing it and allowing it to be transported to the cell surface by the Golgi apparatus. Thus the correct answer is option B.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are the proteins on the surface of cell membrane. These proteins play an important role in the recognition of the foreign antigens. There are two MHC complexes called as MHC-I and MHC-II complex. These complexes play a different role in different processes. The genes for MHC complex are located on the chromosome 6 in the case of humans. In the case of mice, these genes are on chromosome 17. 

MHC class II molecules bind peptides from antigens processed in organelles. These extracellular antigens, such as whole bacteria, engulfed by APCs via phagocytosis or endocytosis are enclosed in an intracellular vesicle. This vesicle containing peptides is fused with another vesicle containing MHC class II proteins. Upon fusion, the peptide is loaded onto MHC class II molecules, and the entire complex migrates to the cell membrane surface, where peptide-specific CD4 T cells recognize it. Thus the correct answer is option A.

Helper T-cells secrete signaling molecules called lymphokines to coordinate the immune response. Killer T-cells (cytotoxic T-cells) secrete perforins, which create pores in the membranes of target cells to induce lysis.

• A T cell, or T lymphocyte, is a type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells, by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus. 
• The types of T-cells are killer cells (cytotoxic cells) which destroy virus-infected cells and tumor cells, and are also implicated in transplant rejection, helper T-cells which  assist other white blood cells in immunologic processes, including maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells, and activation of cytotoxic T cells and macrophages and suppressor T-cells which are crucial for the maintenance of immunological tolerance.
  

Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones. Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or hematopoiesis. Bone marrow is considered as a primary lymphoid organ which is involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues. Bone marrow is responsible for both the production of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells. 

The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system. The T-cells are produced from the bone marrow. Within the thymus, T cells mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts specifically to foreign invaders. The thymus is the largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods.

A T cell or T lymphocyte is a type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells, by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. They are called T cells because they mature in the thymus. Most lymphocytes are short-lived, with an average life span of a week to a few months, but a few live for years, providing a pool of long-lived T cells (4-5 years) and B cells.

A T cell or T lymphocyte is a type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells, by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. Lymphocytes such as B-cells and T-cells are produced in the bone marrow. They are called T- cells because they mature in the thymus.

• A T cell, or T lymphocyte, is a type of lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell) that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells, by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. T-cells are originated from bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. 
  
• There are 3 main types of T-cells in mammals. They are - cytotoxic cells ( destroy virus-infected cells and tumour cells), helper cells (assist other WBC in immunologic processes including maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells, and activation of cytotoxic T cells and macrophages and suppressor cells (stop  T cell-mediated immunity toward the end of an immune reaction).

An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells. The part of an antibody that binds to the epitope is called a paratope. These epitopes interact with the paratope based on the 3-D surface features and shape or tertiary structure of the antigen.

Antigenic determinants (epitopes) are the specific parts of an antigen recognized by the immune system. Both antibodies (secreted or B-cell receptors) and T-cell receptors are capable of binding to these determinants.

• B cell activation occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen and lymph nodes. 
• After B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate through the blood secondary lymphoid organs to which receive a constant supply of antigen through circulating lymph.
•  In birds, the bursa of Fabricius is the site of hematopoiesis, a specialized organ that is necessary for B cell development in birds. 
• Hence, B-lymphocytes differentiate and mature in Bone marrow and Bursa of Fabricius. 
• So, the correct answer is 'Both A and B'.
  

• Perforin is a pore-forming cytolytic protein found in the granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and Natural Killer cells (NK cells). 
• Upon degranulation, perforin binds to the target cell's plasma membrane, and oligomerises in a Ca2+ dependent manner to form pores on the target cell.
• Hence, Cytotoxic T-cells are similar to natural killer cells in the secretion of Perforins.
•  So, the correct answer is 'Perforins'.

Lymphocytes are kind of white blood cells present in the bone marrow. ADA (adenosine deaminase) is an enzyme that is present in lymphocytes and is very important for the immune system to function. Its primary function in humans is the development and maintenance of the immune system.

T cells are so called because they are predominantly produced in the medullary region of thymus. They recognise  foreign particles (antigen) by a surface expressed, highly variable, T cell receptor (TCR). There are two major types of T cells: the helper T cell and the cytotoxic T cell. As the names suggest helper T cells ‘help’ other cells of the immune system, whilst cytotoxic T cells kill virally infected cells and tumours. T cells with CD4 molecules bind peptides displayed on MHC II molecules. As discussed earlier, such peptides are derived from phagocytized sources, and thus these T cells interact with only with certain special, phagocytic cells. 

Plasma cells are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system. Plasma cells originate at the bone marrow and B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modeled after the receptors and requires interactions with Helper T cells.

Plasma cells are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system. They originate in the bone marrow: B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody molecules closely modeled after the receptors of the precursor B cell.

T cells must be activated by interacting with a professional APC presenting an antigen with their T cell receptor recognizes before they can divide and perform their function. For this, they must interact with a macrophage.

The three major types of lymphocyte are T cells, B cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Lymphocytes can be identified by their large nucleus. T helper cells(T_H cells) assist other white blood cells in immunologic processes, including maturation of B cells into plasma cells and memory B cells and activation of cytotoxic  T cells and macrophages These cells are also known as CD4⁺ T cells because they express the CD4  glycoprotein on their surfaces. Helper T cells become activated when they are presented with peptide antigens by MHC class two molecules, which are expressed on the surface of antigen- presenting cells (APCs).

B- cells are the bone marrow cells which are the major components of the immune response. B-cells are produced in the bone marrow, they migrate to the spleen and other secondary lymphoid tissues. B-cells are responsible for generating antibodies to different antigens.