Development of regional cultures - class-VIII

The Jagannatha temple is located at Puri, Orissa. In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the deputy of the god.

In the nineteenth century, the region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan, was called Rajputana by the British. While this may suggest that this was an area that was inhabited only or mainly by Rajputs, this is only partly true.There were (and are) several groups who identify themselves as Rajputs in many areas of northern and central India. And of course, there are several peoples other than Rajputs who live in Rajasthan. However,the Rajputs are often recognised as contributing to  the distinctive culture of Rajasthan.

In many parts of the subcontinent, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world,a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. To date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god, who was later identified with Vishnu.

In many parts of the subcontinent, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.

The Jagannatha temple is located at Puri, Orissa. In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the deputy of the god.

Kathak is a dance form associated with North india. The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story. The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.

In the nineteenth century, the region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan, was called Rajputana by the British. Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially trained minstrels. These preserved the memories of heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their example. Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories which often depicted dramatic situations, and a range of strong emotions loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc.

Kathak is a dance form associated with North India. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

Kathak is a dance form associated with north India. The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement. The legends of Radha - Krishna were enacted in folk plays called Rasa Lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

Kathak is a dance form associated with North India. Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement. The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.

In the 19th century, the region that constitutes most of the present day Rajasthan was called as Rajputana by the British. There stories and poems written about the heroics of the Rajputs. Women also figure in the Rajputana stories. Sometimes, they figure as the cause for conflicts, as men fought with one another to either win or protect women. Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death there are stories about the practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands.

Most of the present day Rajasthan was called as the Rajputana by the British in the 19th century. The stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially trained minstrels. These preserved the memories of heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their example. Ordinary people were also attracted by these stories which often depicted dramatic situations,and a range of strong emotions loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc.

Kathak is a dance form associated with North India. Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas : one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow.

There are 6 types classical dances in India mainly :
Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri. Kathak is performed in North India, Kathakali in Kerala, Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu, Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh, Odissi in Odisha, Manipuri in Manipur .

There are 6 types classical dances in India mainly :
Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri. Kathak is performed in North India, Kathakali in Kerala, Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu, Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh, Odissi in Odisha, Manipuri in Manipur .

There are 6 types classical dances in India mainly :
Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri. Kathak is performed in North India, Kathakali in Kerala, Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu, Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh, Odissi in Odisha, Manipuri in Manipur.

Wajid Ali Shah was the last Nawab of Awadh. Under his patronage Kathak grew into a major art form. Kathak is a form of dance associated with North India and derives its name from the Sanskrit word Katha which means a story. The other names mentioned in the options were the earlier Nawabs of Awadh.

Kathak is dance form associated with North India. Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas : one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow.

There are 6 types classical dances in India mainly :
Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri. Kathak is performed in North India, Kathakali in Kerala, Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu, Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh, Odissi in Odisha, Manipuri in Manipur.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.

Kathak is a dance form associated with north India. Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form.

Kathak is a dance form originated in north india. By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly entrenched as a dance form not only in Jaipur and Lucknow, but in the adjoining areas of present-day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.

There are 6 types of classical dances in India mainly :
Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri. Kathak is performed in North India, Kathakali in Kerala, Bharatanatyam in Tamil Nadu, Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh, Odissi in Odisha, Manipuri in Manipur.

The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry. With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states. As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan.

Cult of Jagannatha at Puri, Orissa.
The
local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests
that the deity was originally a local god, who was later identified with
Vishnu.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts. The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts. Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised higly skilled painters. The Mughal paintings were characterised by brilliant colours,court scenes, hunting scenes, etc.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.

In
the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga
dynasty, Anatavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama
Jagannatha at Puri.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.

In 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the "deputy" of the god.

The
term Kathak is derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other
languages for story. The Kathaks were originally a caste of
story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their
performances with gestures and songs.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.
Another region that attracted miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh. By the late seventeenth century this region had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli.

The Basohli miniature painting developed around Himachal Pradesh around the late 17th century. Nadir Shahs invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to escape the uncertainties of the plains.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood.
By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli.

Stories
about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were
recited by specially trained minstrels. These preserved the memories of
heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their examples.

Sometimes,
women figure as the cause for conflicts, as men fought with one another
to either "win" of "protect" women. Women are also depicted as
following their heroic husbands in both life and death.

Many Mughal Emperors patronised highly skilled painters. With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states. As a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. At the same time, they retained and developed their distinctive characteristics. Portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be painted, following the Mughal example. Besides, themes from mythology and poetry were depicted at centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.

The
Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronishe highly
skilled painters who primarily illustrated manuscripts containing
historical accounts and poetry. These were generally painted in
brilliant colours.

As
the temple gained importance as a center of pilgrimage, its
authority in social and political matters also increased. All those who
conquered Orissa, such as the Mughals, the Marathas and the English East
India Company, attempted to gain control over the temple. They felt
that this would make their rule acceptable to the local people.

In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anatavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudattas Rasamanjari.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudattas Rasamanjari.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.

The Sun Temple at Konark, Odisha, is famously known as the Black Pagoda due to its dark appearance and its use as a navigational landmark by sailors.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.

Miniatures (as their very name suggests) are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or wood. By the late seventeenth century Himachal Pradesh had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.

Bengali is a language spoken mostly in the state of Bengal and by Bengalis. Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, but early Sanskrit texts (mid-first millennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages. From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit. During the fourth century the Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area.Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley became stronger. In the seventh century the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observed that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal. 

The early settlers in Eastern Bengal who migrated from the more fertile Western Bengal from 16th century onwards, sought some order and assurance in the unstable conditions of the new settlements. These were provided by community leaders, who also functioned as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes ascribed with supernatural powers. People referred to them with affection and respect as pirs. This term included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities, daring colonisers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits. The cult of pirs became very popular and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.

Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories one indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (literally auspicious poems, dealing with local deities) and bhakti literature such as the biographies of Chaitanyadeva, the leader of the Vaishnava bhakti movement.The second includes Nath literature such as the songs of Maynamati and Gopichandra, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur, and fairytales, folk tales and ballads.

Bengali is a language spoken mostly in the state of Bengal and by Bengalis. Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, but early Sanskrit texts (mid-first millennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages. From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit.

From the sixteenth century, people began to migrate in large numbers from the less fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal. As they moved eastwards, they cleared forests and brought the land under rice cultivation. Gradually, local communities of fisher folk and shifting cultivators, often tribals, merged with the new communities of peasants

Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth century, which culminated in the nineteenth century. Temples and other religious structures were often built by individuals or groups who were becoming powerful to both demonstrate their power and proclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built with the support of several low social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). With the coming of the European trading companies, their socio-economic conditions improved. As their social and economic position improved, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples.

Bengali is a language spoken mostly in the state of Bengal and by Bengalis. Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, but early Sanskrit texts (mid-first millennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages. From the fourth-third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha (south Bihar), which may have led to the growing influence of Sanskrit. During the fourth century the Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area.Thus, the linguistic and cultural influence from the mid-Ganga valley became stronger.

The early settlers in Eastern Bengal who migrated from the more fertile Western Bengal from 16th century onwards, sought some order and assurance in the unstable conditions of the new settlements. These were provided by community leaders, who also functioned as teachers and adjudicators and were sometimes ascribed with supernatural powers. People referred to them with affection and respect as pirs.

Traditional food habits are generally based on locally available items of food. Bengal is a riverine plain which produces plenty of rice and fish.

Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non vegetarian food, but the
popularity of fish in the local diet in Bengal made the Brahmanical
authorities relax this prohibition for the Bengal Brahmanas. The
Brihaddharma Purana, a thirteenth-century Sanskrit text from Bengal,
permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain varieties of fish.

Traditional food habits are generally based on locally available items of food. Bengal is a riverine plain which produces plenty of rice and fish. Understandably, these two items figure prominently in the menu of even poor Bengalis. Fishing has always been an important occupation and Bengali literature contains several references to fish. What is more, terracotta plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries) depict scenes of fish beingdressed and taken to the market in baskets.

In West Bengal, the practice of having a small pond (pukur) in the backyard of houses for fish rearing is a traditional and common cultural feature.

Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late fifteenth century, which culminated in the nineteenth century. Temples and other religious structures were often built by individuals or groups who were becoming powerful to both demonstrate their power and proclaim their piety. Many of the modest brick and terracotta temples in Bengal were built with the support of several low social groups, such as the Kolu (oil pressers) and the Kansari (bell metal workers). With the coming of the European trading companies, their socio-economic conditions improved. As their social and economic position improved, they proclaimed their status through the construction of temples.

From the 16th century onwards, when local deities, once worshipped in thatched huts in villages, gained the recognition of the Brahmanas, their images began to be housed in temples. The temples began to copy the double-roofed (dochala) or four-roofed (chauchala) structure of the thatched huts.  This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.