Organ Transplantation and Immune System

Active immunity is the antibody response produced by the body when exposed to pathogens, vaccines etc. It is a long lasting immunity and has no side effects as these are WBCs produced by the body. 

Active immunity is established when the immune system encounters an antigen and mounts a primary response, leaving behind long-lived memory B and T cells that protect against subsequent infections.

Emil von Behring was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1901 for his discovery of serum therapy for diphtheria. He and Shibasaburo Kitasato showed that serum from rabbits immunized with tetanus toxin could prevent tetanus in rabbits. Erlich's work demonstrating that increasing doses of bacterial toxins could provide immunity against lethal doses of toxin was the basis for the serum therapy findings. His work also led to the concepts of active and passive immunization, and to his Nobel Prize in 1908 awarded for establishing the field of humoral immunity. It is fitting to highlight Erlich's contribution to the initial conception of passive immunization in 2015, the 100 year anniversary of his death.

Cyclosporin is an immunosuppressive agent used in organ transplant patient. It is produced by fungus Trichoderma polysporum.

Immunosuppressants are drugs that inhibit or prevent the activity of the immune system, which is necessary to prevent the body from rejecting transplanted organs.

Immunosuppressants are used to manage graft versus host disease and are often required after procedures like bone marrow transplantation to prevent rejection.

Antibodies. Antibodies are sometimes used as a quick and potent immunosuppressive therapy to prevent the acute rejection reactions as well as a targeted treatment of autoimmune disorders 

Graft versus host disease (GvHD) occurs when the transplanted donor cells (the graft) recognize the recipient's body (the host) as foreign and attack it.

Autograft is a surgical transplantation of any tissue from one part of the body to another in the same individual. It is used in several kinds of plastic surgery, most commonly to replace skin lost in severe burns in which the open wound is usually covered with autograft.

• Grafting refers to a surgical procedure to move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another creature, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed.
• There are 4 types of grafting techniques. They are Allograft, Autograft, Isograft and Xenograft.
• Xenograft is the Grafting between two individuals of different species. Most commonly from animal to man such as pig heart valve used to replace human.
• Hence Graft between individuals of different species is called  Xenograft.
• So, the correct answer is 'Xenograft'.

Cyclosporin A is a potent immunosuppressant drug commonly used in organ transplantation to prevent rejection.

Alexis Carrel won noble prize for his research in organ transplantation in the year 1912. He's also considered as father of organ transplantation and vascular anastomosis.

The first organ transplant (kidney) performed in India was done at the King Edward Memorial Hospital at Bombay/Mumbai, Maharastra in May 1965.

During transplantation of organs, rejection reactions may occur due to the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes in the recipient.

Prolonged glucocorticoid therapy causes multiple complications including gastrointestinal ulcers, osteoporosis (not 'Ostroporosis'), and increased gastric acid and pepsinogen secretion. The question has a typo ('Ostroporosis') but the intent is clear.

The immunosuppressive drugs are given to treat individuals with autoimmune disorders and to suppress immunity in order prevent host immune responses against antigens on the transplanted organ, thereby avoiding rejection. There are various kinds of immunosuppressive drugs; some drugs like Calcineurin inhibitors act on some of the immune cells which synthesize the receptors for antigen binding. None of the immunosuppressive drugs acts against antigens. However, use of the immunosuppressive drugs pose a risk of infection because they don't specifically inhibit certain cells that cause autoimmunity or transplant rejection, they inhibit the entire immune system making us vulnerable to infections. Thus, the correct answer is option D.

Chronic opioid use is known to suppress both innate and adaptive immune responses, affecting cytokine production and lymphocyte proliferation. Tetracyclines are antibiotics and analgesics are a broad class, neither of which are primarily classified as immunosuppressants.

Methotrexate is an immunosuppressant mainly used as a folic acid analogue. It is known as amethopterin is a chemotherapy agent and immune system suppressant. It is used to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, ectopic pregnancy and medical abortions. Used for include breast cancer, leukemia, lung cancer, lymphoma.

Cytostatics inhibit cell division. They affect the proliferation of both T cells and B cells. Due to their highest effectiveness.

IFN is the immunosuppressive drug to slow down the progression of multiple sclerosis. It is used to treat various cancers and virus infections. It is same as protein that your body naturally produces. It is through to work by affecting cell function and body's natural defenses in many ways.

An autograft involves transferring tissue from one site to another within the same individual, ensuring genetic identity and preventing rejection. Isografts occur between genetically identical individuals, while xenografts occur between different species.

A- An isograft is a graft of tissue between two individuals who are genetically identical i.e. monozygotic twins.Transplant rejection in such cases never occurs.

A- Allograft or allotransplant is the transplant of cells, tissues, or organs to a recipient from a genetically non-identical donor of same species. Most of the organ or tissue transplants in human are allografts.  

Graft versus host disease (GVHD) occurs when immunocompetent cells from a donor graft recognize the recipient's tissues as foreign. This is most common in allogenic transplants where the donor and recipient are not genetically identical.

Graft rejection is primarily a cell-mediated immune response where T cells recognize foreign MHC molecules on the transplanted tissue. While other cells participate, T cells are the primary effectors of the rejection process.

Immunosuppressants are drugs/medicines that lower the immune system's ability to reject a transplanted organ. Even though the transplant is proper, it is always advised to continue taking immunosuppressant medication.
But when transplanted tissue is rejected by the recipient's immune system and destroys the transplanted tissue is called as graft rejection. Lymphocytes of specific cell-mediated immunity (T-cells) are responsible for graft rejection.

• The drugs that lower the immune system' are called immunosuppressants. 
• These drugs are given to prevent graft rejection by lowering the immune system's ability to reject the transplanted organ. 
• If immunity is not lowered the T lymphocytes which are the components of cell-mediated immunity destroy the transplanted tissue causing graft rejection. Thus the correct answer is option C.

Immuno-modulators are natural or synthetic substances that help to regulate or normalise the immune system. There are two types of immuno-modulators viz, immuno-suppressants, which cause immuno-suppression of the immune system and immuno-stimulants (immuno-stimulators) which stimulate immune system by inducing or increasing activity of any of its component. Thus the correct answer is option D.

A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. It is used in the collection of specific alleles (that is, specific DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly linked genes on a chromosome that are likely to be inherited together. An individual will have two haplotypes, although at a population level there may be numerous haplotypes for any given stretch of chromosomal DNA.

A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. It is used in the collection of specific alleles (that is, specific DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly linked genes on a chromosome that are likely to be inherited together. The dizygotic twin pairs share two HLA haplotypes more often than ordinary siblings and thus might be genetically more alike.

A haplotype (haploid genotype) is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent. It is used in the collection of specific alleles (that is, specific DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly linked genes on a chromosome that are likely to be inherited together.

The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system or complex is a gene complex encoding the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins in humans. These cell-surface proteins are responsible for the regulation of the immune system in humans. Tissue typing is a group of procedures that determine the type of histocompatibility antigens on a person's cells or tissues. This procedure is typically used prior to transplantation of tissues or organs. In tissue typing HLA (human leucocyte antigen) are matched.

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The major problem in organ transplantation is transplant rejection, during which the body has an immune response to the transplanted organ(non-self), possibly leading to transplant failure and the need to immediately remove the organ from the recipient.

Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. One of the major problem associated with organ transplantation is the transplantation rejection, during which the body has an immune response to the transplanted organ leading to transplant failure and the need to immediately remove the organ from the recipient. In order to prevent the transplant rejection, the immunosuppressant drugs are used which suppresses the immune system responses.

Cyclosporin is an effective immunosuppressant used in the treatment of autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis) and in organ transplantation to prevent rejection. Cyclosporin lowers the activity of T-cells and hence, suppressing the activity of the immune system. Cyclosporin was isolated from the fungus Tolypocladium inflatum. Common side effects include high blood pressure, headache, kidney problems, increased hair growth, and vomiting.

Fetal tissue grafts have been researched for treating neurodegenerative conditions like Parkinson's disease, where the goal is to replace lost dopamine-producing neurons. The other listed conditions are not typically treated with fetal tissue grafts.

An austrian opthalmologist transplanted the cornea in both eyes of a man who had previously been blinded.

The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system or complex is a gene complex encoding the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins in humans. These cell-surface proteins are responsible for the regulation of the immune system in humans.HLA is the major cause of organ transplant rejections.  Mutations in HLA may be linked to autoimmune disease. Hence, HLA is a group of genes.

• Trichoderma is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae.
• Cyclosporine A (CsA), a calcineurin inhibitor produced by the fungi Trichoderma polysporum is an immunosuppressant prescribed in organ transplants to prevent rejection.
• Hence Drug for medical treatment is obtained from organism Trichoderma.
• So, the correct answer is 'Option B'.

Genetically modified pigs can be used as organ donors for xenotransplantation.

Transplant rejection occurs when transplanted tissue is rejected by the recipient's immune system, which destroys the transplanted tissue. Killer T cells, also called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), have CD8 receptors that recognize the transplanted tissue's MHC (major histocompatibility complex) class I molecules, which display the donor's self-antigens. Thereupon, the T cell receptors (TCRs) of the killer T cells recognize their matching epitope and trigger the target cell's programmed cell death by apoptosis.

• The grafted kidney may be rejected in a patient due to the cell-mediated immune response that is mediated by T-lymphocytes.
•  The body is able to differentiate 'self' and 'non-self'. 
• Therefore, tissue matching, blood group matching are essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this the patient has to take immunosuppressants all his/her life.
•  Hence, the Grafted kidney may be rejected in a patient due to Cell-mediated immune response.
• So, the correct answer is 'Cell-mediated immune response'.

A) $Penicillium$ is an antibiotic and is not related to heart patients.
B) $Trichoderma\quad polysporum$ is a fungus that is used to produce the drug cyclosporine which is used to overcome rejection reactions after organ translplants.
C) $Monascus\quad purpureus$ is a yeast from which statins are produced which acts as a clot buster and controls cholesterol levels. It is not related to swine flu.

A group of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells that help the immune system recognize foreign substances Major histocompatibility (MHC) complex genes. In vertebrates, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes present on chromosome 6 code for a set of cell surface proteins that are  essential for the acquired immune system to recognize foreign molecules, which determines histocompatibility.

A-Cyclophosphamide CP known as cytophoshphane among other names is a medication used as chemotherapy and to suppress the immune system. Chemotherapy is used to treat lymphoma, multiple myeloma, leukemia, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma, and sarcoma.

Azathioprine is a purine analogue that interferes with DNA synthesis, thereby inhibiting mitosis and the proliferation of T and B cells. Since both A and B describe the mechanism of action, D is the correct choice.

Both Cyclosporin A (derived from Tolypocladium inflatum) and Rapamycin (derived from Streptomyces hygroscopicus) are well-known fungal metabolites used as potent immunosuppressants in transplantation.

Cyclosporin is an effective immunosuppressant used in the treatment of autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis) and in organ transplantation to prevent rejection. Cyclosporin lowers the activity of T-cells and hence, suppressing the activity of the immune system. Cyclosporin was isolated from the fungus Tolypocladium inflatum. Common side effects include high blood pressure, headache, kidney problems, increased hair growth, and vomiting. So, the correct answer is 'Immunosuppressant'.