Digestion in intestine - class-XI

• Proteins are converted into dipeptides in the stomach which is followed by the conversion of dipeptides to amino acids in the small intestine. These amino acids are absorbed through the wall of the intestine as simple absorbable substances.
• Hence In order to absorb and use Proteins by the body, these must be broken down by hydrolysis into proteins.
• So, the correct answer is 'amino acids, proteins'.

Protein in invertebrates is a breakdown by four different enzymes known as a proteinase, carboxypolypeptidase, aminopolypeptidase, and dipeptidase, which can be separated by adsorption but vertebrates have one extra enzyme trypsin is also found that helps in activation of the given four and digestion of protein.

Amylase, rennin and trypsin are protein enzymes.

Pancreatic amylase is an enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine that specifically breaks down complex carbohydrates like starch into simpler sugars.

Lipase is a specialized digestive enzyme secreted primarily by the pancreas and in small amounts in the mouth and stomach. Its primary biological function is to catalyze the breakdown of dietary fats (lipids) into glycerol and fatty acids.

Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase, lipase and trypsin, trypsin converts polypeptides into the dipeptides in the first part of small intestine i.e., duodenum. The succus entricus in the third part of small intestine i.e., ileum converts dipeptides into the amino acids which are absorbed by the wall of the intestine. Thus, the correct answer is option C.

Various types of movements are generated by the muscularis layer of the small intestine. These movements help in a thorough mixing up of the food with various secretions in the intestine and thereby facilitate digestion. The bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions released into the small intestine. Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato-pancreatic duct. The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells, which secrete mucus. The secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice or succus entericus.

Small intestine has three parts - duodenum, jejunum and ileum. When food leaves the stomach through its pyloric end and enters the duodenum it is called chyme (acidic). The digestion of macro molecules ingested is completed in small intestine. The digested products are absorbed in the small intestine and comes to the blood.

• Small intestine has three parts - duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 
• The maximum digestion of food takes place in the duodenum. While the digestion of food is completed in jejunum.
•  The maximum absorption of food takes place in ileum.

Proteins are biopolymers made up of  by joining together of amino acids with the help of peptide bonds. When proteins are acted upon by digestive proteolytic enzymes in the gut the peptide bonds are hydrolyzed and a mixture of amino acids is obtained.

Oxyntic cells or parietal cells, are the stomach epithelium cells that secrete gastric acid intrinsic factor. These cells secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), which makes the gastric juice acidic (pH =2 -3). 

Protein digestion occurs in stomach, duodenum, jejunum and ileum. It is completed in ileum.

The digestive role of the liver is to produce bile and export it to the duodenum. The gall bladder primarily stores, concentrates and releases bile. 

Pancreatic juice contains a variety of enzymes, including pancreatic amylase for starch and trypsin/chymotrypsin for proteins, making it capable of digesting both.

Lactase is a brush-border enzyme located in the small intestine that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.

Pancreatic juice is liquid secetrted by pancreas . It is alkaline in nature and it has following enzymes lipase, for digesting fats, amylase for digesting starch, trypsinogen for digesting proteins.

1. Amino acids and proteins are the building blocks of life. Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins.
2.  When proteins are digested or broken down, amino acids are left. Zymogenic cell or peptic cell in the stomach that releases pepsinogen and chymosin. 
3. This inactive pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid, gets converted to the active enzyme pepsin.
4.  Pepsin is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes, which helps in digestion of the proteins to polypeptide chains. The end product of protein is it must be broken down into amino acids. Hence, the end product of protein digestion is amino acids.

Enteropeptidase is an enzyme produced by the cells of the duodenum and is involved in the digestion in humans and other animals. Enteropeptidase converts trypsinogen (a zymogen) into its active form trypsin, resulting in the subsequent activation of pancreatic digestive enzymes

Parietal cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor. Parietal glands also secrete pepsinogen to which hydrochloric acid acts to convert it into pepsin. Pepsin in return causes digestion of protein. If parietal cells become non-functional, it will directly affect protein digestion. So, the correct answer is (d).

• The pancreatic enzymes and intestinal enzymes are optimally active in alkaline pH (8.0-8.4) in the small intestine.
  
• Thus, the acidic food from stomach is made alkaline by the action of bile.
• Bile is alkaline in nature as it contains organic salt known as bile salt.

The large intestine is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from the remaining undigested material. If chyme is pushed backwards, it moves into the large intestine.

The caecum is the first part of the large intestine where undigested food material enters from the small intestine and begins to be processed into faeces.

Digestion ends in small intestine. Waste products are excreted from our body through large intestine. Excess water and salts are absorbed from intestine through muscular finger like projections called Villi.

Many microbes present in alimentary canal of some animals like cones help in digestion and absorption of food. Bacteria in our large intestine helps in bowel movement.

Undigested waste is collected in large intestine and stored in rectum. It is excreted through anus. Sphincter muscle regulated the excretion of waste products from our body.

Residue of digested food passes into large intestine. Large intestine has three regions i.e C shaped colon, cecum and thick tubular rectum.

Auerbach 's  plexus is part of autonomic nervous system  in vertebrates lying between the two main muscular layers  of intestine and controlling its peristaltic movements .

Stercobilin is a bile pigment derivative that gives faeces its characteristic brown color. Urochrome is found in urine, and biliverdin is a green bile pigment.

Taeniae coli are three separate longitudinal bands of smooth muscle on the outside of the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon.

In the wall of caecum and colon, the longitudinal muscle layer is thickened along three lines, forming the taeniae.

The greater omentum is a large, apron-like fold of the visceral peritoneum that hangs down from the stomach and transverse colon. It is not a bone prominence.

In herbivores, the caecum is the primary site for the microbial fermentation and digestion of cellulose. Humans have a vestigial caecum, but the organ remains associated with this function in biological context.

Rabbits are hindgut fermenters that rely on a large, specialized caecum to house symbiotic bacteria for the breakdown of cellulose. Humans, cats, and frogs do not utilize the caecum for this purpose.

The large intestine, specifically the colon, is the primary site for the reabsorption of water and electrolytes from the remaining chyle. This process helps in the formation of solid faeces.

Escherichia coli is a well-known nonpathogenic bacterium that resides in the human large intestine as part of the normal gut flora. It aids in vitamin synthesis and prevents the colonization of harmful bacteria.

As in other herbivorous mammals, the caecum in rabbits serves as a fermentation chamber where symbiotic microorganisms break down cellulose into absorbable nutrients.

The human caecum houses a population of symbiotic microorganisms that contribute to gut health. While the human caecum is reduced compared to herbivores, it still serves as a reservoir for these bacteria.

The ileocaecal valve is a sphincter muscle located at the junction of the small intestine (ileum) and the large intestine (caecum). It prevents the backflow of faecal material into the small intestine.

The vermiform appendix is a small, blind-ended tube that is attached to the caecum, which is the initial part of the large intestine.

Argentaffin cells (also known as enterochromaffin cells) are specialized endocrine cells found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Given the options, the large intestine is a correct site, though they are present in other areas too.

Statement 1 accurately describes the anatomical location and appearance of the vermiform appendix. Statement 2 is also correct, as the appendix is considered a vestigial organ with no significant digestive function in humans.