Human lungs - class-XI

• When the internal intercostal muscles contract and diaphragm relax, the ribs move .downward and inward and the diaphragm becomes convex {dome shaped), 
• thus decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and increasing the pressure inside as compared to the atmospheric pressure outside. This will cause the air to move out (expiration).

While respiration atmospheric air is drawn in a carbon dioxide is released out, diffusion of gases takes place in the alveolar tissue which is then carried by blood, then diffusion of gases take place between blood and tissues, oxygen is utilized by cells for catabolic reactions, and the resultant carbon dioxide is released from the body.

  (i) Diaphragm contracts to help in (1) inspiration while the contraction of abdominal muscles helps in (2) forced expiration.

(ii) Vital capacity of trained athletes is (3) higher than that of non-athletes while the vital capacity of non-smokers is (4) higher than that of smokers.

(iii) Alveolar PO2 is (5) higher than the venous PO2 while arterial PO2 is (6) lower than the alveolar PO2.

So, the correct answer is '(1)-inspiration, (2)-forced expiration, (3)-higher, (4)-higher'.

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The diaphragm is the dome-shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity containing the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration: as the diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs.

The diaphragm functions in breathing. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves in the inferior direction, thus enlarging the volume of the thoracic cavity (the external intercostal muscles also participate in this enlargement). This reduces intra-thoracic pressure.

Breathing involves two stages, inspiration during which atmospheric air is drawn in and expiration by which the alveolar air is released out. The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere. Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure. Similarly, expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm and a specialised set of muscles external and internal intercostals between the ribs, help in generation of such gradients.

• A hiccup is an involuntary contraction of the diaphragm involving a reflex arc, that may repeat several times per minute. 
• Once triggered, the reflex causes a strong contraction of the diaphragm followed by about 0.25 seconds later by closure of the vocal cords, which results in the classic "hic" sound. 
• Hiccups may occur individually, or they may occur in bouts. 

Breathing or pulmonary ventilation is a process where the nasal and oral cavities inhaled the air and enter into the lungs through the pharynx, larynx and trachea. Air is also exhaled through the same pathway. While larynx, pharynx and trachea are involved the changes to the volume and air pressure in the lungs trigger  breathing. During the process of  inhalation, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract thereby elevating the rib cage. With the increase in the volume of the lungs, air pressure drops letting the air rush in. Similarly, during exhalation, the muscles relax letting the lungs become smaller, which raises the air pressure and helps to expel the air.

Exhalation is a process to breath out.carbon dioxide is a waste product in the body that release out during exhalation, it is also saturated with water vapor.

Carbon dioxide is released in the process of exhalation in large amount.$CO _2$ dissolves in water and can easily and reversibly form compounds such as carbonic acid and bicarbonates. when it is released out, it is saturated with water vapour and this is the reason for water droplets in the mirror.

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular partition that separates the thoracic cavity, containing the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity, containing the digestive organs.

Forced deep breathing (hyperventilation) lowers the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood. Since CO2 is the primary chemical stimulus for breathing, low levels lead to a temporary cessation of breathing (apnea) until CO2 levels rise again.

Breathing involves the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, which change the volume of the thoracic cavity and create the pressure gradients necessary for air movement.

Increased CO2 concentration in the blood (hypercapnia) is detected by chemoreceptors, which signal the respiratory center in the brain to increase the rate and depth of breathing to expel excess CO2.

During breathing, 20% oxygen is taken in and 15% oxygen is exhaled out. Movement of diaphragm is very important during breathing process. Ribs will also move in and out with the diaphragm. It is not possible to breathe by moving the diaphragm along without moving ribs. Even after forceful exhalation, lungs are never fully emptied. Residual volume, that is minimum amount of air in lungs always remain at all times. Eustachian tube connects middle ear cavity with nasopharynx and hence, one can breathe out air through it by closing both nose and mouth.

A)Nasal chamber opens into nasopharynx which is a portion of pharynx – True because It also connects the nasal system of air chambers and the upper end of the trachea. The opening of the mouth into the pharynx is the oropharynx, and the nasal opening is the nasopharynx. The eustachian tube from the middle ear opens into the pharynx on each side.

B)Larynx produces sound during inspiration as well as expiration – True, because, the larynx commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck of tetrapods involved in breathing, producing sound. They have skeletal muscle, cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing airway obstruction, results in the creation of sounds.

C)During swallowing, gullet can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called Epiglottis – false, because, the epiglottis is a flap in the throat that keeps food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. The flap is made of elastic cartilage covered with a mucous membrane, attached to the entrance of the larynx. It projects obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the hyoid bone, pointing dorsally.

D) The trachea is get divided at the level of 6th thoracic vertebra into right and left primary bronchi – False, because The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs It divides into the right and left bronchi at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, channeling air to the right or left lung.

E)The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli comprise the lungs – True.

So, the correct option is ‘2’.

During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, thus enlarging the thoracic cavity. This reduces intra-thoracic pressure: enlarging the cavity creates suction that draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, air is exhaled by elastic recoil of the lung and the tissues lining the thoracic cavity in conjunction with the abdominal muscles, which act as an antagonist, paired with the diaphragm's contraction.

An average adult breathes approximately 12 to 16 times per minute at rest. Over 24 hours, this equates to roughly 17,000 to 23,000 breaths, with 22,000 being a commonly cited average estimate.

The concentration of expired air is more in the alveolar air than in expired air due to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in alveoli is more than the atmosphere.

• Hiccup is also called as a hiccough. It is an involuntary activity of the diaphragm. During hiccups, the diaphragm muscle shows several involuntary contractions. 
• When the diaphragm muscle contracts, the opening between the vocal cords snaps shut to check the inflow of air. 
• This results in the hic or hiccup sound. This results due to irritation of the nerves. 

During inhalation, the contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic chamber. Specifically, the contraction of the dome-shaped diaphragm increases the volume along the anteroposterior axis, while rib elevation increases the dorsoventral axis.

The medulla oblongata is the primary respiratory control centre. Its main function is to send signals to the muscles that control respiration to cause breathing to occur. The respiratory control centre increase respiratory rate on the account of decrease in blood pH, as the oxygenated blood through veins enter the system, decrease in $CO _2$ levels, increased respiratory rate.

Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory and fibrotic medical condition affecting the parenchymal tissue of the lungs caused by the inhalation and retention of asbestos fibers.

Asbestosis is a known risk factor for lung carcinoma and mesothelioma. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria, not a direct consequence of asbestos fiber inhalation.

(d) The number of alveoli in human lungs has been estimated to be approximately 750 million, exposing a surface area of nearly 100 $m^2$.

If the lung is punctured, the intrapleural space is exposed to atmospheric pressure. This eliminates the negative pressure that keeps the lung inflated, causing the lung to collapse (pneumothorax).

Residual air in the lungs is essential to keep the alveoli from collapsing between breaths; it does not decrease the efficiency of respiration but rather maintains structural integrity. The other statements correctly describe respiratory adaptations in birds, insects, and fish.

The statement is false because the primary organ for eliminating nitrogenous wastes like urea is the kidneys, via urine formation, not the lungs. The lungs primarily eliminate carbon dioxide and water vapor.

The statement is false because bile pigments are excreted by the liver into the digestive tract through bile and eliminated via feces, not excreted by the lungs. Lungs expel respiratory gases like carbon dioxide.

The serous membrane that covers the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity is the pleura.

The lungs remain inflated because the intrapleural pressure is lower than the intrapulmonary pressure (negative pressure), which pulls the lungs outward against the chest wall, preventing collapse.

Polio is a viral disease that affects the nervous system, specifically the spinal cord, potentially leading to paralysis. Pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma are all conditions that directly affect the lungs.

The right lung is divided into three lobes (superior, middle, and inferior), while the left lung is divided into two lobes (superior and inferior) to accommodate the heart.

The lungs are enclosed in a double-layered serous membrane known as the pleura or pleural membrane.

Most carbon dioxide (about 70%) is transported in the blood as bicarbonate ions, formed when CO2 reacts with water in red blood cells.

Because of the pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere, the air moves into and out of the lungs. Inspiration occurs if the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric pressure i.e. there is a negative pressure in the lungs with respect to atmospheric pressure.

The pleura refers to the double-layered membrane that covers the lungs. The space between the two membranes is called the pleural cavity. It is filled with a thin, lubricating liquid called pleural fluid, which acts as a lubricant and allows the pleurae to slide effortlessly against each other by reducing friction during respiratory movements. So, the correct option is 'pleura'.

In humans, the primary site for gas exchange between the blood and the atmosphere is the alveoli within the lungs.