Cancer and Diabetes - Lifestyle Diseases

In diabetes mellitus, either body doesn't make enough insulin, or it can't use the insulin it does produce, or a combination of both. The cells need insulin to take in the glucose and use it for energy. Since, the cells can't take in the glucose, it builds up in blood. Common symptoms include the following: frequent urination, excessive thirst, unexplained weight loss, extreme hunger, sudden vision changes, tingling or numbness in the hands or feet, feeling very tired much of the time, very dry skin, sores, that are slow to heal, more infections than usual.

Type II diabetes is referred to as maturity-onset diabetes because they are characterized by impaired insulin secretion with very less or no defects in insulin action.

• Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood to skeletal muscles and fat tissue and by causing fat to be stored rather than used for energy. 
• Insulin also inhibits the production of glucose by the liver. Except in the presence of the metabolic disorder diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome, insulin is provided within the body in a constant proportion to remove excess glucose from the blood, which otherwise would be toxic. 

• Gestational diabetes is the third main form of diabetes and occurs when pregnant women without a previous history of diabetes develop a high blood sugar level. 

Diabetes Mellitus is due to deficiency or absence of insulin or interference in insulin activity. Prolonged hypergylcaemia leads to this disorder. This causes following effects :

Diabetes Mellitus is due to deficiency or absence of insulin or interference in insulin activity. Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to this complex disorder called diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus causes the following effects :

• Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period.
•  The condition in which your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead. This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine. 
• High ketone levels in urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. Hence, the Condition of a concentration of ketone body urine is diabetes mellitus.
• So, the correct answer is 'diabetes mellitus'.

• Under conditions of abnormal carbohydrate metabolism, such as occurs in diabetes mellitus, in which your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead.
•  This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine.
•  ketones accumulate in the blood (ketonemia) and are excreted in the urine (ketonuria). 
• The accumulation of ketones is often the cause of acidosis and coma in diabetics. Ketonuria is also associated with starvation. Hence, Ketonuria is due to diabetes mellitus.

• Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. 
• Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications.
• The number of people with diabetes has risen from 108 million in 1980 to 422 million in 2014. Hence, Percentage of world population suffering from diabetes is 4%.

Diabetes mellitus is a disease which is caused due to the deficiency of insulin hormone. As insulin is not present in the blood the glucose cannot be taken up by the cell. Therefore the amount of glucose increases in the blood which leads to the damage of tiny blood vessel in the kidney, heart, eyes and nervous system.

• Some of the symptoms associated with untreated diabetes mellitus (DM) are weight loss, polyuria (increased urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyphagia (increased hunger). 
• These symptoms may develop rapidly (weeks or months) in type 1 DM, while they usually develop much more slowly and maybe subtle or absent in type 2 DM. 

Carbohydrates should constitute around 60-70% of the total calories in diabetics. Carbohydrates in the form of simple sugars need restriction. The carbohydrates should be in the form of complex polysaccharides (starch) and contain adequate amount of digestible fibres. Very high carbohydrate intakes and/or high glycaemic index foods can exacerbate the dyslipidemia, including hypertriglyceridemia.

• Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a disease that results in high sugar level in the blood or high blood glucose. 
• Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin or the cells of the body not responding properly to the insulin produced. 
• Type 1 DM results from the failure of the beta cells of the pancreas to produce enough insulin. 
• Type 2 DM begins with insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to respond to insulin properly. 

Mouth cancer is the oral cancer and is any cancerous tissue growth located in the oral cavity. Chewing Betel and Areca is known to be a strong risk factor for developing oral cancer. In India, these practices are common and so, oral cancer represents upto 40% of all cancers. Mouth and throat cancer is twice as common in men as in women.
Thus, the correct answer is option (C), 'Mouth-throat cancer'.

Mycobacterium is an aerobic and non-motile bacteria which are pathogens (some causing tuberculosis).
Cancer causing bacteria (like H.pylori causing gastric cancer) or viruses are organisms known to or suspected to cause cancer and are carcinogens.
Hepatitis A virus is responsible for causing hepatitis A infection.
Lymphadenopathy Associated virus is a human retrovirus which is another name for HIV, human immunodeficiency virus responsible for AIDS. So, this virus causes an infection, AIDS and also causes cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma.
Therefore, the correct answer is option B.

Radiation therapy works by damaging the DNA of rapidly dividing cells, which prevents them from replicating. Cancer cells are characterized by their rapid and uncontrolled division.

Leukaemia is cancer of blood-forming cells. Leukaemia usually causes large numbers of white blood cells to be made. These abnormal cells usually cannot carry out the normal functions of white blood cells. They crowd the bone marrow and spill into the blood and may then spread into organs such as the liver, spleen, lungs and kidneys. Sometimes, they may also spread into the fluid around the brain and spinal cord. Because there are so many abnormal white cells crowded into the bone marrow, the marrow sometimes cannot make enough normal red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Interleukin are small proteins that are produced by a variety of cell types, especially T cells and other white blood cells, that regulate many aspects of inflammation and the immune response, including stimulating the production of white blood cells and platelets. The function of the immune system depends in a large part on interleukins and rare deficiencies of a number of them have been described, all featuring autoimmune diseases or immune deficiency. The majority of interleukins are synthesized by helper CD4 T lymphocytes, as well as through monocytes, macrophages and endothelial cells. They promote the development and differentiation of T and B lymphocytes and hematopoietic cells. Interleukin may be used to combat some forms of cancer.

Leukaemia is cancer of blood-forming cells. Leukaemia usually causes large numbers of white blood cells to be made. These abnormal cells usually can't carry out the normal functions of white blood cells. They crowd the bone marrow and spill into the blood and may then spread into organs such as the liver, spleen, lungs and kidneys. Sometimes, they may also spread into the fluid around the brain and spinal cord. Because there are so many abnormal white cells crowded into the bone marrow, the marrow sometimes can't make enough normal red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Thus, option B is correct.

Leukaemia is cancer of blood-forming cells. Leukaemia usually causes large numbers of white blood cells to be made. These abnormal cells usually can't carry out the normal functions of white blood cells. They crowd the bone marrow and spill into the blood and may then spread into organs such as the liver, spleen, lungs and kidneys. Sometimes, they may also spread into the fluid around the brain and spinal cord. Because, there are so many abnormal white cells crowded into the bone marrow, the marrow sometimes can't make enough normal red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Metastasis, or metastatic disease, is the spread of a cancer disease from one organ or part to another not directly connected with it. Metastasis depends on the cancer cells acquiring two separate abilities -- increased motility and invasiveness. Cells that metastasize are basically of the same kind as those in the original tumor. If a cancer arises in the lung and metastasizes to the liver, the cancer cells in the liver are lung cancer cells. However, the cells have acquired increased motility and the ability to invade another organ.

Disease that lasts for longer period of time is called chronic. Cancer is a disease caused due to abnormal growth of body cell mass.

• Palynology is the study of pollen grains and other spores, especially as found in archaeological or geological deposits. Pollen extracted from such deposits may be used for studying past climates and environments by identifying plants which are growing in a particular environment and climate.
  
• Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.
  
• Phycology or algology is a branch of life science and often is regarded as a subdiscipline of botany which involves the scientific study of algae. Algae are important as primary producers in aquatic ecosystems.
  
• Sericulture or silk farming is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk.  Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori (the caterpillar of the domesticated silk moth) is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm.
  

An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. In tumor cells, oncogenes were first discovered in certain retroviruses and were identified as cancer-causing agents in many animals. In the mid 1970s, the American microbiologists, John Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus tested the theory that healthy body cells contain dormant viral oncogenes that, when triggered, cause cancer. 
Thus, the correct answer is option (D), 'J.M. Bishop and H.E. Vermus'.

Oncogenes are mutated forms of proto-oncogenes that promote cell growth. Their activation or overexpression leads to uncontrolled cell division, which is the hallmark of cancer.

Vinca  rosea is a native and endemic ornamental and medicinal plant, o source for the anticancer drugs vincristine and vinblastine.

Vitamin E is a group of eight fat-soluble compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. It is estimated that vitamin E provides protection against carcinogens but the mechanism is not clearly understood. Gamma-tocotrienol, a cofactor found in natural vitamin E preparations, may decrease prostate tumour formation.

Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal and rapid cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss and a change in bowel movements. Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, vaccination against certain infectious diseases.

The ability to maintain functional telomeres may be one mechanism that allows cancer cells to grow in vitro for decades. Telomerase activity is necessary to preserve many cancer types and is inactive in somatic cells, creating the possibility that telomerase inhibition could selectively repress cancer cell growth with minimal side effects. If a drug or mutation can inhibit telomerase in cancer cells, the telomeres of successive generations will progressively shorten, limiting tumor growth.

Transgenic models are genetically modified organisms in which the genome has been altered through random integration of gene sequences.

Cryobiology is the branch of biology that deals with effects of low temperatures on living things. Teratology is the branch of science which deals with the study of congenital abnormalities and abnormal physiological development. Molecular biology is the branch of biology which deals with the the structure and function of the essential macromolecules. The major application of molecular biology to prevention and early detection of cancer and other diseases by identification of certain genes. Gerontology is the branch of science which deals with the study of old age, the process of ageing and the problems of aged people.

A deletion mutation occurs when part of a DNA molecule is not copied during DNA replication. This uncopied part can be as small as single nucleotide or as much as an entire chromosome. The loss of this DNA during replication can lead to genetic disease.

Exposure to heavy metals like cadmium is a known environmental risk factor for prostate cancer, as it can interfere with DNA repair mechanisms.

One of the hallmarks of human cancers is the intrinsic or acquired resistance to apoptosis. Evasion of apoptosis may contribute to carcinogenesis, tumor progression and also to treatment resistance, since most current anticancer therapies including chemotherapy, radio- and immunotherapy primarily act by activating cell death pathways including apoptosis in cancer cells.

HeLa  is an immortal cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest and most commonly used human cell line. The line was derived from cervical cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951 from Henrietta Lacks, a patient who died of cancer on October 4, 1951. The cell line was found to be remarkably durable and prolific which warrants its extensive use in scientific research. The cells from Lacks's cancerous cervical tumor were taken without her knowledge or consent. Cell biologist George Otto Gey found that they could be kept alive, and isolated one specific cell, multiplied it, and developed a cell line. (Before this, cells cultured from other human cells would only survive for a few days; scientists spent more time trying to keep the cells alive than performing actual research on them. Cells from Lacks's tumor behaved differently.) As was custom for Gey's lab assistant, she labeled the culture 'HeLa', the first two letters of the patient's first and last name; this became the name of the cell line. These were the first human cells grown in a lab that were naturally "immortal", meaning that they do not die after a set number of cell divisions (i.e. cellular senescence). These cells could be used for conducting a multitude of medical experiments—if the cells died, they could simply be discarded and the experiment attempted again on fresh cells from the culture. This represented an enormous boon to medical and biological research, as previously stocks of living cells were limited and took significant effort to culture.