Metabolism - class-XI

Any chemical reaction includes the formation of transition state between reactant and product. Formation of transition state requires high energy content of reactant molecules for alignment of reacting groups, the formation of transient unstable charges, rearrangements of chemical bonds etc. The energy required for formation of the transition state is termed as activation energy. Enzymes enhance the rate of reaction by lowering down the activation energy of transition state. Thus, the correct answer is option C.

• Enzymes provide activation energy for the reactions they catalyze.
• Catalysts lower the activation energy for reactions. 
• The lower the activation energy for a reaction, the faster the rate. Thus enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.so, option A is correct.

Any chemical reaction includes the formation of transition state between reactant and product. The energy required for formation of the transition state is termed as activation energy. Enzymes enhance the rate of reaction by lowering down the activation energy of transition state. Thus, the correct answer is option C.

The transition state is the state of the activated complex which is highly unstable and readily changes into the product.  At the transition state, the enzyme attaches to the substrate to form an enzyme-substrate complex by forming a weak chemical bond. Binding energy is the free energy that is released by the formation of weak interactions between a complementary substrate and enzyme.

Chemical reactions take place mainly at a specific temperature in presence of a catalyst. The substrate and product have different energy state. The energy gap between the substrate and the product is known as activation energy which is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction. In presence of a catalyst, the activation energy lowers and the substrate changes into the product.

Activation energy is the energy required to bring reactants into a transition state, which involves both bringing them together in the correct orientation and destabilizing their existing bonds to facilitate the reaction.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst is a chemical that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. Without a catalyst, the amount of energy required for the reaction is large. Enzymes and catalysts both affect the rate of a reaction. The lower the activation energy for a reaction, the faster the rate of chemical reaction. Thus enzymes speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

Enzymes are proteins which accelerate the rate of the reaction. The substrate and product have different energy state. The energy gap between the substrate and the product is known as activation energy which is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction. The enzymes lower the activation energy and lead to the faster conversion of substrate to the product.

Metabolism includes both the synthesis of biomolecules(known as anabolism) and breaking down of substrates to generate energy(known as catabolism).

Destructive metabolism is the breakdown of more complex substances into simpler ones with release of energy.

Metabolism refers to series of reactions in which product of one reaction becomes reactant for the next one. It includes catabolism (degradative pathways) and anabolism (synthetic pathways). Digestion is the process in which complex compounds are broken down into the simpler form. Hence, option C is the correct answer. 

Smaller organisms have a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio, leading to faster heat loss and thus a higher metabolic rate to maintain body temperature. The heart rate of a baby is higher than an adult, which is a physiological manifestation of this higher metabolic rate.

In the given question, the correct sequence of steps of respiration is:
(iii) Pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 is released out.
(vi) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar tissues.
(ii)   Transport of gases by the blood.
(v)   Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(i)    The utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions.
(iv)  Released resultant CO2.

The anabolic processes are the reactions in which the smaller organic molecules are used for the production of the large complex molecules. The carbon dioxide molecule is fixed in the dark reactions for the formation of the glucose molecule. Six molecules of CO$ _2$ are fixed to form one molecule of glucose in which the energy is stored. 

Metabolism refers to series of reactions wherein product of one reaction becomes reactant for the next one. It includes catabolism (degradative pathways) and anabolism (synthetic pathways). Catabolic reactions are the reactions in which complex molecules are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. The catabolic reactions are exergonic reactions( energy releasing reactions). While photosynthesis is an anabolic reaction which requires energy for the formation of complex molecules. Hence option B is the correct answer.

The metabolism is a chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life and basic unit of life is cell, hence all metabolic reactions occur  in cell. So, the correct option is 'Cellular level'

Both RUBISCO and PEP carboxylase are important enzymes of dark reaction of photosynthesis. RUBISCO catalyzes carboxylation in C3 plants. In the presence of magnesium activated RUBISCO, carbon dioxide combines with ribulose bis phosphate to form phosphoglyceric acid. In C4 plants, mesophyll cells fix carbon dioxide with the help of phospho enol pyruvate in the presence of magnesium activated phospho-enol pyruvate carboxylase.

Enzymes are proteins which accelerate the rate of the reaction. The substrate and product have different energy state. The energy gap between the substrate and the product is known as activation energy which is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction. The enzymes lower the activation energy and lead to the faster conversion of substrate to the product.

A modulator is a type of molecule which either stimulates or inhibits enzyme activity. Those which stimulate enzyme activity are known as inducers while those which inhibit enzyme activity are known as inhibitors. The inhibitors can be competitive, non-competitive or allosteric inhibitors. 

Allosteric means in a different steric conformation or occurrence of more than one shapes. Allosteric modulators bind to a site different from the active site and bring changes in the shape or conformation of the enzyme molecule. The change in shape can activate the enzyme or inhibit the activity of enzyme. An allosteric inhibitor will bind to allosteric site and bring in the conformational changes to reduce the enzyme activity.

Competitive inhibition is the inhibition of an enzyme by an inhibitor which has structural similarity to the active site and thus competes with the substrate for binding with the active site. Competitive inhibition is a reversible inhibition and depends on the relative concentration of substrate and inhibitor.

Feedback inhibition is the inhibition mechanism in metabolic pathways where the end product of one reaction are the substrates for next reaction. Such feedback inhibition is usually directed at the first or first few reactions in the pathway to help conserve precious cellular resources, thus in case the end product is not required the metabolic pathway is blocked at the initial stages itself. The feed back regulation is mostly brought about by the allosteric modulators. Usually the first steps in metabolic pathways are catalysed by allosteric enzymes whose catalysis rate can be increased with the help of positive modulators and decreased with the help of negative modulators.

A non-competitive inhibitor is one that binds to a site distinct from the site which binds the substrate; inhibitor binding does not block substrate binding or vice versa. The enzyme is inactivated when inhibitor is bound, whether or not substrate is also present. The inhibitor effectively lowers the concentration of active enzyme and hence, lowers the apparent V$ _{max}$. There is often little or no effect on K$ _m$.

A competitive inhibitor is a reversible inhibition where the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme. While the inhibitor occupies the active site it prevents binding of the substrate to the enzyme. Many competitive inhibitors are compounds that resemble the substrate and combine with the enzyme to form an enzyme inhibitor complex, but without leading to catalysis. Even fleeting combinations of this type will reduce the efficiency of the enzyme. By taking into account the molecular geometry of inhibitors that resemble the substrate, we can reach conclusions about which parts of the normal substrate bind to the enzyme. Competitive inhibition can be analyzed quantitatively by steady-state kinetics.

Competitive inhibitors of enzymes compete with the active site of enzyme making them unavailable for the originally desired substrate. 

Succinate was placed in one of the most important cyclic pathways in metabolism, a collecting pool of catabolic and a starting point of many anabolic processes. Succinate is a product of substrate-level phosphorylation materialized in the citric acid cycle. It is involved in a macrophage-specific metabolic pathway generating and is also a downstream product of the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, a heavily regulated multi-subunit complex.