Biotechnology and genetic engineering - class-XII

While many concerns exist, the high cost of research, development, and patenting associated with genetic engineering is a primary economic barrier to its widespread adoption in developing nations.

Genetic engineering relies on the ability to manipulate DNA precisely. Restriction endonucleases act as molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sequences, allowing for the insertion of foreign genes.

Human insulin was the first pharmaceutical product produced using recombinant DNA technology in genetically engineered bacteria (E. coli).

Plasmid is boon to biotechnology. By the used of plasmids of E. coli, it is possible to produce insulin polypeptide chains separately. This has enable the artificial production of mature human insulin commercially. In this, genome corresponding to the polypeptide chain A and B of insulin are synthesized in vitro. These are then introduced into plasmid of E.coli. Under selected medium, the polypeptides A and B are expressed highly. These are extracted and combined by creating disulphide bridge to form artificial human insulin.

Answer is option C i.e. "Genetically engineered insulin will not elicit immune response in human body"

All the listed biological products, including insulin, human growth hormone, interferons, and hepatitis-B surface antigen, are commercially produced using recombinant DNA technology in genetically engineered microbes such as bacteria or yeast.

The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, in 1949. 

Transgenic plants are organisms that have had their genetic material altered by the introduction of foreign genes from another species using genetic engineering techniques.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces proteins that are toxic to specific insect pests, which is why it is used to create bio-insecticidal crops.

A transgenic microorganism is a microbe, usually a bacterium, into which genetic information has been introduced from the outside and which possesses the ability to pass that information on to subsequent generations. In this process by which, scientists introduce new genetic material into a microorganism is called as molecular or gene cloning. It involves the isolation of DNA from a source other than the microorganism itself. The human insulin is produced by genetically engineered Escherichia coli.

In order for a human gene to be expressed in bacteria, it must have one important modification. Specifically, it must lack introns. Introns are intervening sequences found in many human genes, and they are removed from eukaryotic RNA transcripts by splicing to make a mature mRNA. Bacteria lack enzymes for splicing. This problem is tackled by using the following approaches:- 

The given sentences can be arranged in a systemic order of i, iv, v, ii, vi, iii.

Genetically modified or Genetically engineered bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics. These organisms are now used for several purposes and are particularly important in producing large amounts of pure human proteins for use in medicine. Insulin is normally produced by it.

Both C-Peptide and mature insulin are biologically active. Cell components and proteins in this image are not to scale. Proinsulin is the prohormone precursor to insulin made in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, specialized regions of the pancreas. In humans, proinsulin is encoded by the INS gene.

The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and Licensed by Elli Lilly and company.

Encapsulation involves enclosing enzymes within a semi-permeable membrane, such as nitrocellulose or nylon, to immobilize them while allowing substrate and product diffusion.

Covalent bonding for enzyme immobilization can utilize various carriers like cellulose, collagen, and gelatin, which provide functional groups for the attachment.

The pore size of an immobilization matrix must be chosen to accommodate the enzyme's size (molecular weight) and ensure that the enzyme concentration is optimized for the reaction.

Entrapment involves trapping enzymes within a polymer matrix. Common materials used for this purpose include agar, gelatin, and cellulose triacetate.

The process by which protoplasts of two different plant species are fused together and transfer of some of the chromosomes occurs between two species to form hybrids is called as somatic hybridization and the hybrids that are produced is known as somatic hybrids. The steps of somatic hybridization involve - isolation of protoplasts, the fusion of different protoplasts and selection of hybrids. 

Calcium alginate is a widely used material for the immobilization of yeast cells due to its biocompatibility and the ease of forming beads.