Reading Comprehension Practice

Which of the following cannot be inferred from the above passage?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the question that follows.

In the past, it was assumed that intellectual performance and physical fitness were two entirely different things. Some people were said to be all brawn and no brain. Others were all brain and no brawn. Now, research is beginning to show that there is no separating mind and body. Brain is a part of human body and physical health has a profound effect on mental health and vice-versa.

Over the last few decades, great strides have been made in the realm of physical health and nowadays people in the developed world are undoubtedly living longer than ever before. A century ago, a baby girl in Australia could expect to live no more than 58 years on an average. Now, she can expect to live upto 83 on an average, a massive shift of 25 years. And the fact that the average has shifted this much means that a great many Australian women are living beyond the age of 83.
It’s nothing new for the people to live well beyond 83, of course. History is full of famous examples of centenarians. What’s changed is that a century ago, an 83-year lifespan was a rarity. Now, it is the norm. A similar thing has been happening in the fitness levels of older people. A century ago, it was rare for old people to be fit and healthy. Now it is a norm.
What’s more, some of these over-60s are so fit that there is now a Veterans’ Olympics in which veterans compete to a very high standard. Any slight drop in their physical performance is often more than matched by the benefits of a lifetime’s experience. Sixty-four-year-old UK squash player Mike Thurgur is one such inspiring example. In a recent charity event, he was on court for 15 hours non-stop, taking on all comers, including many national-level players one third his age and beat them all. Equally impressive is the astronaut John Glenn. He coped with the rigours of space travel at the age of 77.
The average age of the people around the world is going up and up. Already, 1 in 10 is over 60. The United Nations estimate that by 2050, it will be 1 in 5. As this ‘greying’ of humanity gathers pace, more and more of us will be over 80, and many will even be over 100.
This is a phenomenal achievement. Barely a century ago, very few people ever had the chance to reach their 80s and beyond. All too many were cut down in their prime by disease and hardship. In 1900, 99 in every 100 people would die before they even reached 60. Only 1 in 100 would live long enough to collect a pension. The rare privilege of living out anywhere near the full human lifespan was reserved for a tiny elite. Now, thanks to better diet, steady improvement in public health and the benefits of modern medicine, most of us can expect to live until our 90s and beyond. In the West, life expectancy is going up year after year. Every American baby born in the year 2004 can expect to live up to the age of 77.9 years on an average. White girls can expect to live up to nearly 81.

According to the writer, which of the following is the norm now?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the question that follows.

In the past, it was assumed that intellectual performance and physical fitness were two entirely different things. Some people were said to be all brawn and no brain. Others were all brain and no brawn. Now, research is beginning to show that there is no separating mind and body. Brain is a part of human body and physical health has a profound effect on mental health and vice-versa.

Over the last few decades, great strides have been made in the realm of physical health and nowadays people in the developed world are undoubtedly living longer than ever before. A century ago, a baby girl in Australia could expect to live no more than 58 years on an average. Now, she can expect to live upto 83 on an average, a massive shift of 25 years. And the fact that the average has shifted this much means that a great many Australian women are living beyond the age of 83.
It’s nothing new for the people to live well beyond 83, of course. History is full of famous examples of centenarians. What’s changed is that a century ago, an 83-year lifespan was a rarity. Now, it is the norm. A similar thing has been happening in the fitness levels of older people. A century ago, it was rare for old people to be fit and healthy. Now it is a norm.
What’s more, some of these over-60s are so fit that there is now a Veterans’ Olympics in which veterans compete to a very high standard. Any slight drop in their physical performance is often more than matched by the benefits of a lifetime’s experience. Sixty-four-year-old UK squash player Mike Thurgur is one such inspiring example. In a recent charity event, he was on court for 15 hours non-stop, taking on all comers, including many national-level players one third his age and beat them all. Equally impressive is the astronaut John Glenn. He coped with the rigours of space travel at the age of 77.
The average age of the people around the world is going up and up. Already, 1 in 10 is over 60. The United Nations estimate that by 2050, it will be 1 in 5. As this ‘greying’ of humanity gathers pace, more and more of us will be over 80, and many will even be over 100.
This is a phenomenal achievement. Barely a century ago, very few people ever had the chance to reach their 80s and beyond. All too many were cut down in their prime by disease and hardship. In 1900, 99 in every 100 people would die before they even reached 60. Only 1 in 100 would live long enough to collect a pension. The rare privilege of living out anywhere near the full human lifespan was reserved for a tiny elite. Now, thanks to better diet, steady improvement in public health and the benefits of modern medicine, most of us can expect to live until our 90s and beyond. In the West, life expectancy is going up year after year. Every American baby born in the year 2004 can expect to live up to the age of 77.9 years on an average. White girls can expect to live up to nearly 81.

What was wrongly assumed in the past?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the question that follows.

In the past, it was assumed that intellectual performance and physical fitness were two entirely different things. Some people were said to be all brawn and no brain. Others were all brain and no brawn. Now, research is beginning to show that there is no separating mind and body. Brain is a part of human body and physical health has a profound effect on mental health and vice-versa.

Over the last few decades, great strides have been made in the realm of physical health and nowadays people in the developed world are undoubtedly living longer than ever before. A century ago, a baby girl in Australia could expect to live no more than 58 years on an average. Now, she can expect to live upto 83 on an average, a massive shift of 25 years. And the fact that the average has shifted this much means that a great many Australian women are living beyond the age of 83.
It’s nothing new for the people to live well beyond 83, of course. History is full of famous examples of centenarians. What’s changed is that a century ago, an 83-year lifespan was a rarity. Now, it is the norm. A similar thing has been happening in the fitness levels of older people. A century ago, it was rare for old people to be fit and healthy. Now it is a norm.
What’s more, some of these over-60s are so fit that there is now a Veterans’ Olympics in which veterans compete to a very high standard. Any slight drop in their physical performance is often more than matched by the benefits of a lifetime’s experience. Sixty-four-year-old UK squash player Mike Thurgur is one such inspiring example. In a recent charity event, he was on court for 15 hours non-stop, taking on all comers, including many national-level players one third his age and beat them all. Equally impressive is the astronaut John Glenn. He coped with the rigours of space travel at the age of 77.
The average age of the people around the world is going up and up. Already, 1 in 10 is over 60. The United Nations estimate that by 2050, it will be 1 in 5. As this ‘greying’ of humanity gathers pace, more and more of us will be over 80, and many will even be over 100.
This is a phenomenal achievement. Barely a century ago, very few people ever had the chance to reach their 80s and beyond. All too many were cut down in their prime by disease and hardship. In 1900, 99 in every 100 people would die before they even reached 60. Only 1 in 100 would live long enough to collect a pension. The rare privilege of living out anywhere near the full human lifespan was reserved for a tiny elite. Now, thanks to better diet, steady improvement in public health and the benefits of modern medicine, most of us can expect to live until our 90s and beyond. In the West, life expectancy is going up year after year. Every American baby born in the year 2004 can expect to live up to the age of 77.9 years on an average. White girls can expect to live up to nearly 81.

Why does the writer choose Mike Thurgur as an inspiring example?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the question that follows.

In the past, it was assumed that intellectual performance and physical fitness were two entirely different things. Some people were said to be all brawn and no brain. Others were all brain and no brawn. Now, research is beginning to show that there is no separating mind and body. Brain is a part of human body and physical health has a profound effect on mental health and vice-versa.

Over the last few decades, great strides have been made in the realm of physical health and nowadays people in the developed world are undoubtedly living longer than ever before. A century ago, a baby girl in Australia could expect to live no more than 58 years on an average. Now, she can expect to live upto 83 on an average, a massive shift of 25 years. And the fact that the average has shifted this much means that a great many Australian women are living beyond the age of 83.
It’s nothing new for the people to live well beyond 83, of course. History is full of famous examples of centenarians. What’s changed is that a century ago, an 83-year lifespan was a rarity. Now, it is the norm. A similar thing has been happening in the fitness levels of older people. A century ago, it was rare for old people to be fit and healthy. Now it is a norm.
What’s more, some of these over-60s are so fit that there is now a Veterans’ Olympics in which veterans compete to a very high standard. Any slight drop in their physical performance is often more than matched by the benefits of a lifetime’s experience. Sixty-four-year-old UK squash player Mike Thurgur is one such inspiring example. In a recent charity event, he was on court for 15 hours non-stop, taking on all comers, including many national-level players one third his age and beat them all. Equally impressive is the astronaut John Glenn. He coped with the rigours of space travel at the age of 77.
The average age of the people around the world is going up and up. Already, 1 in 10 is over 60. The United Nations estimate that by 2050, it will be 1 in 5. As this ‘greying’ of humanity gathers pace, more and more of us will be over 80, and many will even be over 100.
This is a phenomenal achievement. Barely a century ago, very few people ever had the chance to reach their 80s and beyond. All too many were cut down in their prime by disease and hardship. In 1900, 99 in every 100 people would die before they even reached 60. Only 1 in 100 would live long enough to collect a pension. The rare privilege of living out anywhere near the full human lifespan was reserved for a tiny elite. Now, thanks to better diet, steady improvement in public health and the benefits of modern medicine, most of us can expect to live until our 90s and beyond. In the West, life expectancy is going up year after year. Every American baby born in the year 2004 can expect to live up to the age of 77.9 years on an average. White girls can expect to live up to nearly 81.

Life expectancy has been going up everywhere. What is/are the factor(s) responsible for this changed orientation?

Directions: Read the passage and answer the question that follows.

In the past, it was assumed that intellectual performance and physical fitness were two entirely different things. Some people were said to be all brawn and no brain. Others were all brain and no brawn. Now, research is beginning to show that there is no separating mind and body. Brain is a part of human body and physical health has a profound effect on mental health and vice-versa.

Over the last few decades, great strides have been made in the realm of physical health and nowadays people in the developed world are undoubtedly living longer than ever before. A century ago, a baby girl in Australia could expect to live no more than 58 years on an average. Now, she can expect to live upto 83 on an average, a massive shift of 25 years. And the fact that the average has shifted this much means that a great many Australian women are living beyond the age of 83.
It’s nothing new for the people to live well beyond 83, of course. History is full of famous examples of centenarians. What’s changed is that a century ago, an 83-year lifespan was a rarity. Now, it is the norm. A similar thing has been happening in the fitness levels of older people. A century ago, it was rare for old people to be fit and healthy. Now it is a norm.
What’s more, some of these over-60s are so fit that there is now a Veterans’ Olympics in which veterans compete to a very high standard. Any slight drop in their physical performance is often more than matched by the benefits of a lifetime’s experience. Sixty-four-year-old UK squash player Mike Thurgur is one such inspiring example. In a recent charity event, he was on court for 15 hours non-stop, taking on all comers, including many national-level players one third his age and beat them all. Equally impressive is the astronaut John Glenn. He coped with the rigours of space travel at the age of 77.
The average age of the people around the world is going up and up. Already, 1 in 10 is over 60. The United Nations estimate that by 2050, it will be 1 in 5. As this ‘greying’ of humanity gathers pace, more and more of us will be over 80, and many will even be over 100.
This is a phenomenal achievement. Barely a century ago, very few people ever had the chance to reach their 80s and beyond. All too many were cut down in their prime by disease and hardship. In 1900, 99 in every 100 people would die before they even reached 60. Only 1 in 100 would live long enough to collect a pension. The rare privilege of living out anywhere near the full human lifespan was reserved for a tiny elite. Now, thanks to better diet, steady improvement in public health and the benefits of modern medicine, most of us can expect to live until our 90s and beyond. In the West, life expectancy is going up year after year. Every American baby born in the year 2004 can expect to live up to the age of 77.9 years on an average. White girls can expect to live up to nearly 81.

Which of the following statements is true?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.

For most people, one of the biggest worries about getting older is losing memories. Indeed, memory loss has become so associated with ‘old age’ that having a ‘senior moment’ is the stuff of TV sitcoms. But memory has no limits, whatever the age. Many older people may take a little more time to remember things, yet once the memory is there, it seems as good as at any age.
Rather than expecting to have more and more episodes of forgetfulness as one grows older, one should remember just what can be achieved. There are plenty of examples of great mental longevity. Michelangelo’s greatest works date from his sixties and he was still creating masterly work when he died at the age of 89. Goethe completed his famous Faust at the age of 82, just nine months before his death. In more modern times, Vera Stravinsky was a professional painter whose personal philosophy was, ‘You work in this life.’ She painted every day until the day she died at 97 and remained as sharp as a tack to the end. The maxim is: ‘You’re not getting older, you’re getting better!’
Memory is many different things. It’s that recollection of a day spent on the beach in the rain as a child. It’s the ability to write a letter without thinking how to hold the pen and shape the letters. It’s what enables one to hold in mind, the beginning of this sentence even before reading the end. Infact, memory is involved in everything we ever learn or experience. Memories are being made, stored and reminisced every single moment of our life.
While reminiscing something, the brain does it by creating a new series of pathways of nerve connections, called a ‘memory trace’. It is forgotten – whenever it so happens, because the connections break down through lack of use. Memory is a complex, multi-layered task that draws in every part of brain. Some memories are restricted to particular parts of the brain, most draw in scores of interacting networks or even the whole brain at once. Even those that end up in a particular location, often link up to many different areas.
Originally, psychologists thought they would find that each memory had its own location in the brain. If they had the right tools, they thought that they could one day identify the group of neurons or even the single neuron where a memory was stored. Although, there are parts of the brain associated with particular skills, we now know that the site association of even these skills is far from rigid. Indeed, it seems likely that most memories stimulate the entire brain.
What’s more, most memories are very far from being unchanging records. Each time a memory is used, it changes slightly. When going out for a meal, for example, the front cortex, the logical part of brain, organises the physical details of the event into one kind of memory. Amygdala, the emotional centre, adds an emotional meaning to these memories. In reminiscing happy effects of that night of dinner, the memories get attached to a good feeling. Subsequently, it is found that the dinner partner has gone off with another person. On recalling the dinner one previously had, it has a very different emotional context. The memory gets a different tag and it is reminisced in a different way. The interconnections involved in the memory trace have shifted.

What purpose does the passage serve?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.

For most people, one of the biggest worries about getting older is losing memories. Indeed, memory loss has become so associated with ‘old age’ that having a ‘senior moment’ is the stuff of TV sitcoms. But memory has no limits, whatever the age. Many older people may take a little more time to remember things, yet once the memory is there, it seems as good as at any age.
Rather than expecting to have more and more episodes of forgetfulness as one grows older, one should remember just what can be achieved. There are plenty of examples of great mental longevity. Michelangelo’s greatest works date from his sixties and he was still creating masterly work when he died at the age of 89. Goethe completed his famous Faust at the age of 82, just nine months before his death. In more modern times, Vera Stravinsky was a professional painter whose personal philosophy was, ‘You work in this life.’ She painted every day until the day she died at 97 and remained as sharp as a tack to the end. The maxim is: ‘You’re not getting older, you’re getting better!’
Memory is many different things. It’s that recollection of a day spent on the beach in the rain as a child. It’s the ability to write a letter without thinking how to hold the pen and shape the letters. It’s what enables one to hold in mind, the beginning of this sentence even before reading the end. Infact, memory is involved in everything we ever learn or experience. Memories are being made, stored and reminisced every single moment of our life.
While reminiscing something, the brain does it by creating a new series of pathways of nerve connections, called a ‘memory trace’. It is forgotten – whenever it so happens, because the connections break down through lack of use. Memory is a complex, multi-layered task that draws in every part of brain. Some memories are restricted to particular parts of the brain, most draw in scores of interacting networks or even the whole brain at once. Even those that end up in a particular location, often link up to many different areas.
Originally, psychologists thought they would find that each memory had its own location in the brain. If they had the right tools, they thought that they could one day identify the group of neurons or even the single neuron where a memory was stored. Although, there are parts of the brain associated with particular skills, we now know that the site association of even these skills is far from rigid. Indeed, it seems likely that most memories stimulate the entire brain.
What’s more, most memories are very far from being unchanging records. Each time a memory is used, it changes slightly. When going out for a meal, for example, the front cortex, the logical part of brain, organises the physical details of the event into one kind of memory. Amygdala, the emotional centre, adds an emotional meaning to these memories. In reminiscing happy effects of that night of dinner, the memories get attached to a good feeling. Subsequently, it is found that the dinner partner has gone off with another person. On recalling the dinner one previously had, it has a very different emotional context. The memory gets a different tag and it is reminisced in a different way. The interconnections involved in the memory trace have shifted.

What is the idea contained in the maxim: “You’re not getting older, you’re getting better”?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.

For most people, one of the biggest worries about getting older is losing memories. Indeed, memory loss has become so associated with ‘old age’ that having a ‘senior moment’ is the stuff of TV sitcoms. But memory has no limits, whatever the age. Many older people may take a little more time to remember things, yet once the memory is there, it seems as good as at any age.
Rather than expecting to have more and more episodes of forgetfulness as one grows older, one should remember just what can be achieved. There are plenty of examples of great mental longevity. Michelangelo’s greatest works date from his sixties and he was still creating masterly work when he died at the age of 89. Goethe completed his famous Faust at the age of 82, just nine months before his death. In more modern times, Vera Stravinsky was a professional painter whose personal philosophy was, ‘You work in this life.’ She painted every day until the day she died at 97 and remained as sharp as a tack to the end. The maxim is: ‘You’re not getting older, you’re getting better!’
Memory is many different things. It’s that recollection of a day spent on the beach in the rain as a child. It’s the ability to write a letter without thinking how to hold the pen and shape the letters. It’s what enables one to hold in mind, the beginning of this sentence even before reading the end. Infact, memory is involved in everything we ever learn or experience. Memories are being made, stored and reminisced every single moment of our life.
While reminiscing something, the brain does it by creating a new series of pathways of nerve connections, called a ‘memory trace’. It is forgotten – whenever it so happens, because the connections break down through lack of use. Memory is a complex, multi-layered task that draws in every part of brain. Some memories are restricted to particular parts of the brain, most draw in scores of interacting networks or even the whole brain at once. Even those that end up in a particular location, often link up to many different areas.
Originally, psychologists thought they would find that each memory had its own location in the brain. If they had the right tools, they thought that they could one day identify the group of neurons or even the single neuron where a memory was stored. Although, there are parts of the brain associated with particular skills, we now know that the site association of even these skills is far from rigid. Indeed, it seems likely that most memories stimulate the entire brain.
What’s more, most memories are very far from being unchanging records. Each time a memory is used, it changes slightly. When going out for a meal, for example, the front cortex, the logical part of brain, organises the physical details of the event into one kind of memory. Amygdala, the emotional centre, adds an emotional meaning to these memories. In reminiscing happy effects of that night of dinner, the memories get attached to a good feeling. Subsequently, it is found that the dinner partner has gone off with another person. On recalling the dinner one previously had, it has a very different emotional context. The memory gets a different tag and it is reminisced in a different way. The interconnections involved in the memory trace have shifted.

What is the central idea of this passage?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.

For most people, one of the biggest worries about getting older is losing memories. Indeed, memory loss has become so associated with ‘old age’ that having a ‘senior moment’ is the stuff of TV sitcoms. But memory has no limits, whatever the age. Many older people may take a little more time to remember things, yet once the memory is there, it seems as good as at any age.
Rather than expecting to have more and more episodes of forgetfulness as one grows older, one should remember just what can be achieved. There are plenty of examples of great mental longevity. Michelangelo’s greatest works date from his sixties and he was still creating masterly work when he died at the age of 89. Goethe completed his famous Faust at the age of 82, just nine months before his death. In more modern times, Vera Stravinsky was a professional painter whose personal philosophy was, ‘You work in this life.’ She painted every day until the day she died at 97 and remained as sharp as a tack to the end. The maxim is: ‘You’re not getting older, you’re getting better!’
Memory is many different things. It’s that recollection of a day spent on the beach in the rain as a child. It’s the ability to write a letter without thinking how to hold the pen and shape the letters. It’s what enables one to hold in mind, the beginning of this sentence even before reading the end. Infact, memory is involved in everything we ever learn or experience. Memories are being made, stored and reminisced every single moment of our life.
While reminiscing something, the brain does it by creating a new series of pathways of nerve connections, called a ‘memory trace’. It is forgotten – whenever it so happens, because the connections break down through lack of use. Memory is a complex, multi-layered task that draws in every part of brain. Some memories are restricted to particular parts of the brain, most draw in scores of interacting networks or even the whole brain at once. Even those that end up in a particular location, often link up to many different areas.
Originally, psychologists thought they would find that each memory had its own location in the brain. If they had the right tools, they thought that they could one day identify the group of neurons or even the single neuron where a memory was stored. Although, there are parts of the brain associated with particular skills, we now know that the site association of even these skills is far from rigid. Indeed, it seems likely that most memories stimulate the entire brain.
What’s more, most memories are very far from being unchanging records. Each time a memory is used, it changes slightly. When going out for a meal, for example, the front cortex, the logical part of brain, organises the physical details of the event into one kind of memory. Amygdala, the emotional centre, adds an emotional meaning to these memories. In reminiscing happy effects of that night of dinner, the memories get attached to a good feeling. Subsequently, it is found that the dinner partner has gone off with another person. On recalling the dinner one previously had, it has a very different emotional context. The memory gets a different tag and it is reminisced in a different way. The interconnections involved in the memory trace have shifted.

What is the author’s opinion?

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the question that follows.

For most people, one of the biggest worries about getting older is losing memories. Indeed, memory loss has become so associated with ‘old age’ that having a ‘senior moment’ is the stuff of TV sitcoms. But memory has no limits, whatever the age. Many older people may take a little more time to remember things, yet once the memory is there, it seems as good as at any age.
Rather than expecting to have more and more episodes of forgetfulness as one grows older, one should remember just what can be achieved. There are plenty of examples of great mental longevity. Michelangelo’s greatest works date from his sixties and he was still creating masterly work when he died at the age of 89. Goethe completed his famous Faust at the age of 82, just nine months before his death. In more modern times, Vera Stravinsky was a professional painter whose personal philosophy was, ‘You work in this life.’ She painted every day until the day she died at 97 and remained as sharp as a tack to the end. The maxim is: ‘You’re not getting older, you’re getting better!’
Memory is many different things. It’s that recollection of a day spent on the beach in the rain as a child. It’s the ability to write a letter without thinking how to hold the pen and shape the letters. It’s what enables one to hold in mind, the beginning of this sentence even before reading the end. Infact, memory is involved in everything we ever learn or experience. Memories are being made, stored and reminisced every single moment of our life.
While reminiscing something, the brain does it by creating a new series of pathways of nerve connections, called a ‘memory trace’. It is forgotten – whenever it so happens, because the connections break down through lack of use. Memory is a complex, multi-layered task that draws in every part of brain. Some memories are restricted to particular parts of the brain, most draw in scores of interacting networks or even the whole brain at once. Even those that end up in a particular location, often link up to many different areas.
Originally, psychologists thought they would find that each memory had its own location in the brain. If they had the right tools, they thought that they could one day identify the group of neurons or even the single neuron where a memory was stored. Although, there are parts of the brain associated with particular skills, we now know that the site association of even these skills is far from rigid. Indeed, it seems likely that most memories stimulate the entire brain.
What’s more, most memories are very far from being unchanging records. Each time a memory is used, it changes slightly. When going out for a meal, for example, the front cortex, the logical part of brain, organises the physical details of the event into one kind of memory. Amygdala, the emotional centre, adds an emotional meaning to these memories. In reminiscing happy effects of that night of dinner, the memories get attached to a good feeling. Subsequently, it is found that the dinner partner has gone off with another person. On recalling the dinner one previously had, it has a very different emotional context. The memory gets a different tag and it is reminisced in a different way. The interconnections involved in the memory trace have shifted.

What, as it appears from the passage, is the attitude of the writer towards the likes of Borri?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

In the year 1653, a twenty-seven-year old Milan man named Francesco Borri claimed to have had a vision. He went around town telling one and all that the archangel Michael had appeared to him and announced that he had been chosen to be the capitano generale of the Army of the New Pope, an army that would seize and revitalize the world. The archangel had further revealed that Borri now had the power to see people’s souls, and that he would soon discover the philosopher’s stone—a long-sought-after substance that could change base metals into gold. Friends and acquaintances who heard Borri explain the vision, and who witnessed the change that had come over him, were impressed, for Borri had previously devoted himself to a life of wine, women and gambling. Now he gave all that up, plunging himself into the study of alchemy and talking only of mysticism and the occult.
The transformation was so sudden and miraculous, and Borri’s words were so filled with enthusiasm, that he began to create a following. Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well—they prosecuted anyone who delved into the occult—so he left Italy and began to wander Europe, from Austria to Holland, telling one and all that ‘to those who follow me all joy shall be granted.’ Wherever Borri stayed he attracted followers. His method was simple. He spoke of his vision, which had grown more and more elaborate, and offered to “look into” the soul of anyone who believed him (and they were many). Seemingly in a trance, he would stare at this new follower for several minutes, then claim to have seen the person’s soul, degree of enlightenment, and potential for spiritual greatness. If what he saw showed promise, he would add the person to his growing order of disciples, an honour indeed. 
The cult had six degrees, into which the disciples were assigned according to what Borri had glimpsed in their souls. With work and total devotion to the cult they could graduate to a higher degree. Borri—whom they called “His Excellency,” and “Universal Doctor”—demanded from them the strictest vows of poverty. All the goods and moneys they possessed had to be turned over to him. But they did not mind handing over their property, for Borri had told them, “I shall soon bring my chemical studies to a happy conclusion by the discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and by this means we shall have as much gold as we desire.”
Given his growing wealth, Borri began to change his style of living. Renting the most splendid apartment in the city into which he had temporarily settled, he would furnish it with fabulous furniture and accessories, which he had begun to collect. He would drive through city in a coach studded with jewels, with six magnificent black horses at its head. He never stayed too long in one place, and when he disappeared, saying he had more souls to gather into his flock, his reputation only grew in his absence. He became famous, although in fact he had never done a single concrete thing.
From all over Europe, the blind, the crippled, and the desperate came to visit Borri, for word had spread that he had healing powers. He asked no fee for his services, which only made him seem more marvellous, and indeed some claimed that in this or that city he had performed miracle cure. By only hinting at his accomplishments, he encouraged people’s imagination to blow them up to fantastic proportions. His wealth, for example, actually from the vast sums he was collecting from his increasingly select group of rich disciples; yet it was presumed that he had in fact perfected the philosopher’s stone. The Church continued to pursue him, denouncing him for heresy and witchcraft, and Borri’s response to these charges was a dignified silence; this only enhanced his reputation and made his followers more passionate. Only the great are persecuted, after all; how many understood Jesus Christ in his own time? Borri did not have to say a word—his followers now called the Pope the Antichrist.

What conclusion can be legitimately drawn from the passage?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

In the year 1653, a twenty-seven-year old Milan man named Francesco Borri claimed to have had a vision. He went around town telling one and all that the archangel Michael had appeared to him and announced that he had been chosen to be the capitano generale of the Army of the New Pope, an army that would seize and revitalize the world. The archangel had further revealed that Borri now had the power to see people’s souls, and that he would soon discover the philosopher’s stone—a long-sought-after substance that could change base metals into gold. Friends and acquaintances who heard Borri explain the vision, and who witnessed the change that had come over him, were impressed, for Borri had previously devoted himself to a life of wine, women and gambling. Now he gave all that up, plunging himself into the study of alchemy and talking only of mysticism and the occult.
The transformation was so sudden and miraculous, and Borri’s words were so filled with enthusiasm, that he began to create a following. Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well—they prosecuted anyone who delved into the occult—so he left Italy and began to wander Europe, from Austria to Holland, telling one and all that ‘to those who follow me all joy shall be granted.’ Wherever Borri stayed he attracted followers. His method was simple. He spoke of his vision, which had grown more and more elaborate, and offered to “look into” the soul of anyone who believed him (and they were many). Seemingly in a trance, he would stare at this new follower for several minutes, then claim to have seen the person’s soul, degree of enlightenment, and potential for spiritual greatness. If what he saw showed promise, he would add the person to his growing order of disciples, an honour indeed. 
The cult had six degrees, into which the disciples were assigned according to what Borri had glimpsed in their souls. With work and total devotion to the cult they could graduate to a higher degree. Borri—whom they called “His Excellency,” and “Universal Doctor”—demanded from them the strictest vows of poverty. All the goods and moneys they possessed had to be turned over to him. But they did not mind handing over their property, for Borri had told them, “I shall soon bring my chemical studies to a happy conclusion by the discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and by this means we shall have as much gold as we desire.”
Given his growing wealth, Borri began to change his style of living. Renting the most splendid apartment in the city into which he had temporarily settled, he would furnish it with fabulous furniture and accessories, which he had begun to collect. He would drive through city in a coach studded with jewels, with six magnificent black horses at its head. He never stayed too long in one place, and when he disappeared, saying he had more souls to gather into his flock, his reputation only grew in his absence. He became famous, although in fact he had never done a single concrete thing.
From all over Europe, the blind, the crippled, and the desperate came to visit Borri, for word had spread that he had healing powers. He asked no fee for his services, which only made him seem more marvellous, and indeed some claimed that in this or that city he had performed miracle cure. By only hinting at his accomplishments, he encouraged people’s imagination to blow them up to fantastic proportions. His wealth, for example, actually from the vast sums he was collecting from his increasingly select group of rich disciples; yet it was presumed that he had in fact perfected the philosopher’s stone. The Church continued to pursue him, denouncing him for heresy and witchcraft, and Borri’s response to these charges was a dignified silence; this only enhanced his reputation and made his followers more passionate. Only the great are persecuted, after all; how many understood Jesus Christ in his own time? Borri did not have to say a word—his followers now called the Pope the Antichrist.

The author says, “Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well…” Why unfortunately?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

In the year 1653, a twenty-seven-year old Milan man named Francesco Borri claimed to have had a vision. He went around town telling one and all that the archangel Michael had appeared to him and announced that he had been chosen to be the capitano generale of the Army of the New Pope, an army that would seize and revitalize the world. The archangel had further revealed that Borri now had the power to see people’s souls, and that he would soon discover the philosopher’s stone—a long-sought-after substance that could change base metals into gold. Friends and acquaintances who heard Borri explain the vision, and who witnessed the change that had come over him, were impressed, for Borri had previously devoted himself to a life of wine, women and gambling. Now he gave all that up, plunging himself into the study of alchemy and talking only of mysticism and the occult.
The transformation was so sudden and miraculous, and Borri’s words were so filled with enthusiasm, that he began to create a following. Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well—they prosecuted anyone who delved into the occult—so he left Italy and began to wander Europe, from Austria to Holland, telling one and all that ‘to those who follow me all joy shall be granted.’ Wherever Borri stayed he attracted followers. His method was simple. He spoke of his vision, which had grown more and more elaborate, and offered to “look into” the soul of anyone who believed him (and they were many). Seemingly in a trance, he would stare at this new follower for several minutes, then claim to have seen the person’s soul, degree of enlightenment, and potential for spiritual greatness. If what he saw showed promise, he would add the person to his growing order of disciples, an honour indeed. 
The cult had six degrees, into which the disciples were assigned according to what Borri had glimpsed in their souls. With work and total devotion to the cult they could graduate to a higher degree. Borri—whom they called “His Excellency,” and “Universal Doctor”—demanded from them the strictest vows of poverty. All the goods and moneys they possessed had to be turned over to him. But they did not mind handing over their property, for Borri had told them, “I shall soon bring my chemical studies to a happy conclusion by the discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and by this means we shall have as much gold as we desire.”
Given his growing wealth, Borri began to change his style of living. Renting the most splendid apartment in the city into which he had temporarily settled, he would furnish it with fabulous furniture and accessories, which he had begun to collect. He would drive through city in a coach studded with jewels, with six magnificent black horses at its head. He never stayed too long in one place, and when he disappeared, saying he had more souls to gather into his flock, his reputation only grew in his absence. He became famous, although in fact he had never done a single concrete thing.
From all over Europe, the blind, the crippled, and the desperate came to visit Borri, for word had spread that he had healing powers. He asked no fee for his services, which only made him seem more marvellous, and indeed some claimed that in this or that city he had performed miracle cure. By only hinting at his accomplishments, he encouraged people’s imagination to blow them up to fantastic proportions. His wealth, for example, actually from the vast sums he was collecting from his increasingly select group of rich disciples; yet it was presumed that he had in fact perfected the philosopher’s stone. The Church continued to pursue him, denouncing him for heresy and witchcraft, and Borri’s response to these charges was a dignified silence; this only enhanced his reputation and made his followers more passionate. Only the great are persecuted, after all; how many understood Jesus Christ in his own time? Borri did not have to say a word—his followers now called the Pope the Antichrist.

Which of the following is the best interpretation of the passage?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

In the year 1653, a twenty-seven-year old Milan man named Francesco Borri claimed to have had a vision. He went around town telling one and all that the archangel Michael had appeared to him and announced that he had been chosen to be the capitano generale of the Army of the New Pope, an army that would seize and revitalize the world. The archangel had further revealed that Borri now had the power to see people’s souls, and that he would soon discover the philosopher’s stone—a long-sought-after substance that could change base metals into gold. Friends and acquaintances who heard Borri explain the vision, and who witnessed the change that had come over him, were impressed, for Borri had previously devoted himself to a life of wine, women and gambling. Now he gave all that up, plunging himself into the study of alchemy and talking only of mysticism and the occult.
The transformation was so sudden and miraculous, and Borri’s words were so filled with enthusiasm, that he began to create a following. Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well—they prosecuted anyone who delved into the occult—so he left Italy and began to wander Europe, from Austria to Holland, telling one and all that ‘to those who follow me all joy shall be granted.’ Wherever Borri stayed he attracted followers. His method was simple. He spoke of his vision, which had grown more and more elaborate, and offered to “look into” the soul of anyone who believed him (and they were many). Seemingly in a trance, he would stare at this new follower for several minutes, then claim to have seen the person’s soul, degree of enlightenment, and potential for spiritual greatness. If what he saw showed promise, he would add the person to his growing order of disciples, an honour indeed. 
The cult had six degrees, into which the disciples were assigned according to what Borri had glimpsed in their souls. With work and total devotion to the cult they could graduate to a higher degree. Borri—whom they called “His Excellency,” and “Universal Doctor”—demanded from them the strictest vows of poverty. All the goods and moneys they possessed had to be turned over to him. But they did not mind handing over their property, for Borri had told them, “I shall soon bring my chemical studies to a happy conclusion by the discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and by this means we shall have as much gold as we desire.”
Given his growing wealth, Borri began to change his style of living. Renting the most splendid apartment in the city into which he had temporarily settled, he would furnish it with fabulous furniture and accessories, which he had begun to collect. He would drive through city in a coach studded with jewels, with six magnificent black horses at its head. He never stayed too long in one place, and when he disappeared, saying he had more souls to gather into his flock, his reputation only grew in his absence. He became famous, although in fact he had never done a single concrete thing.
From all over Europe, the blind, the crippled, and the desperate came to visit Borri, for word had spread that he had healing powers. He asked no fee for his services, which only made him seem more marvellous, and indeed some claimed that in this or that city he had performed miracle cure. By only hinting at his accomplishments, he encouraged people’s imagination to blow them up to fantastic proportions. His wealth, for example, actually from the vast sums he was collecting from his increasingly select group of rich disciples; yet it was presumed that he had in fact perfected the philosopher’s stone. The Church continued to pursue him, denouncing him for heresy and witchcraft, and Borri’s response to these charges was a dignified silence; this only enhanced his reputation and made his followers more passionate. Only the great are persecuted, after all; how many understood Jesus Christ in his own time? Borri did not have to say a word—his followers now called the Pope the Antichrist.

What, according to the writer, is the difference between an aggressive action and effective action?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An aggressive leader initiates a series of moves that begin by bringing him much power. Slowly, however, his power reaches a peak, and soon everything turns against him. His numerous enemies band together; trying to maintain his power, he exhausts himself going in this direction and that inevitably he collapses. The reason for this pattern is that the aggressive person is rarely in full control. He cannot see more than a couple of moves ahead, cannot see the consequences of this bold move or of that move. Because he is constantly being forced to react to the moves of his ever growing host of enemies and to the unforeseen consequences of his own rash actions, his aggressive energy is turned against him. 
In the realm of power, it is important to ask—what is the point of chasing here and there, trying to solve problems and defeat enemies when not in control of things? The answer is simple: the idea of power is wrong. Aggressive action is mistaken for effective action. And most often the most effective action is to stay back, keep calm, and let others be frustrated by the traps laid for them, playing for long-term power rather than quick victory.
It needs to be remembered that the essence of power is the ability to keep the initiative, to get others to react to our moves, to keep the opponent and those lurking around on the defensive. When we make other people to come to us, we suddenly become the ones controlling the situation. And the one who has the control has the power. Two things must happen to place a person in this position: We must ourselves learn to master our emotions, and never allow ourselves to be influenced by anger; meanwhile, however, we must keep playing on people’s natural tendency to react angrily when pushed and baited. In the long run, the ability to make other come to us is a weapon far more powerful than any tool of aggression.
This is a delicate trick and can be performed only by those who have mastered the art. All of us have only so much energy, and there are moments when our energies are at their peak. When we make other person come to us, he wears himself out, wasting his energy on the trip. Another advantage that lies with the person to whom the other person comes is that he operates in an unknown territory. Being on hostile ground makes him nervous and often he rushes his actions and makes mistakes. For negotiations or meetings, it is always wise to lure others into our territory, or in the territory of our choice. We have our bearings, while they see nothing familiar and are subtly placed on the defensive.
Manipulation is a dangerous game. Once someone suspects he is being manipulated, it becomes harder and harder to control him. But when we make our opponents to come to us, we create an illusion that he is controlling the situation. He does not feel the strings that pull him. Everything depends on the sweetness of the bait. If the trap is attractive enough, the turbulence of the opponents’ emotions and desires will blind them to reality. The greedier they become, the more they can be led around. If we can make other people dig their own graves, why should we sweat ourselves?
When other people are made to come to us, it is sometimes better to let them know that we have forced their hand. It is better to give up deception for overt manipulation. The psychological ramifications are profound. The person who makes others come to him appears powerful, demands respect, and often gets it. If on one occasion a person has made it a point of dignity that others must come to him and he has succeeded, they will continue to do so even after that person has stopped trying.

What is the characteristic that the author identifies with an aggressive person leading to his failure?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An aggressive leader initiates a series of moves that begin by bringing him much power. Slowly, however, his power reaches a peak, and soon everything turns against him. His numerous enemies band together; trying to maintain his power, he exhausts himself going in this direction and that inevitably he collapses. The reason for this pattern is that the aggressive person is rarely in full control. He cannot see more than a couple of moves ahead, cannot see the consequences of this bold move or of that move. Because he is constantly being forced to react to the moves of his ever growing host of enemies and to the unforeseen consequences of his own rash actions, his aggressive energy is turned against him. 
In the realm of power, it is important to ask—what is the point of chasing here and there, trying to solve problems and defeat enemies when not in control of things? The answer is simple: the idea of power is wrong. Aggressive action is mistaken for effective action. And most often the most effective action is to stay back, keep calm, and let others be frustrated by the traps laid for them, playing for long-term power rather than quick victory.
It needs to be remembered that the essence of power is the ability to keep the initiative, to get others to react to our moves, to keep the opponent and those lurking around on the defensive. When we make other people to come to us, we suddenly become the ones controlling the situation. And the one who has the control has the power. Two things must happen to place a person in this position: We must ourselves learn to master our emotions, and never allow ourselves to be influenced by anger; meanwhile, however, we must keep playing on people’s natural tendency to react angrily when pushed and baited. In the long run, the ability to make other come to us is a weapon far more powerful than any tool of aggression.
This is a delicate trick and can be performed only by those who have mastered the art. All of us have only so much energy, and there are moments when our energies are at their peak. When we make other person come to us, he wears himself out, wasting his energy on the trip. Another advantage that lies with the person to whom the other person comes is that he operates in an unknown territory. Being on hostile ground makes him nervous and often he rushes his actions and makes mistakes. For negotiations or meetings, it is always wise to lure others into our territory, or in the territory of our choice. We have our bearings, while they see nothing familiar and are subtly placed on the defensive.
Manipulation is a dangerous game. Once someone suspects he is being manipulated, it becomes harder and harder to control him. But when we make our opponents to come to us, we create an illusion that he is controlling the situation. He does not feel the strings that pull him. Everything depends on the sweetness of the bait. If the trap is attractive enough, the turbulence of the opponents’ emotions and desires will blind them to reality. The greedier they become, the more they can be led around. If we can make other people dig their own graves, why should we sweat ourselves?
When other people are made to come to us, it is sometimes better to let them know that we have forced their hand. It is better to give up deception for overt manipulation. The psychological ramifications are profound. The person who makes others come to him appears powerful, demands respect, and often gets it. If on one occasion a person has made it a point of dignity that others must come to him and he has succeeded, they will continue to do so even after that person has stopped trying.

Which of the following is definitely true about the passage?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An aggressive leader initiates a series of moves that begin by bringing him much power. Slowly, however, his power reaches a peak, and soon everything turns against him. His numerous enemies band together; trying to maintain his power, he exhausts himself going in this direction and that inevitably he collapses. The reason for this pattern is that the aggressive person is rarely in full control. He cannot see more than a couple of moves ahead, cannot see the consequences of this bold move or of that move. Because he is constantly being forced to react to the moves of his ever growing host of enemies and to the unforeseen consequences of his own rash actions, his aggressive energy is turned against him. 
In the realm of power, it is important to ask—what is the point of chasing here and there, trying to solve problems and defeat enemies when not in control of things? The answer is simple: the idea of power is wrong. Aggressive action is mistaken for effective action. And most often the most effective action is to stay back, keep calm, and let others be frustrated by the traps laid for them, playing for long-term power rather than quick victory.
It needs to be remembered that the essence of power is the ability to keep the initiative, to get others to react to our moves, to keep the opponent and those lurking around on the defensive. When we make other people to come to us, we suddenly become the ones controlling the situation. And the one who has the control has the power. Two things must happen to place a person in this position: We must ourselves learn to master our emotions, and never allow ourselves to be influenced by anger; meanwhile, however, we must keep playing on people’s natural tendency to react angrily when pushed and baited. In the long run, the ability to make other come to us is a weapon far more powerful than any tool of aggression.
This is a delicate trick and can be performed only by those who have mastered the art. All of us have only so much energy, and there are moments when our energies are at their peak. When we make other person come to us, he wears himself out, wasting his energy on the trip. Another advantage that lies with the person to whom the other person comes is that he operates in an unknown territory. Being on hostile ground makes him nervous and often he rushes his actions and makes mistakes. For negotiations or meetings, it is always wise to lure others into our territory, or in the territory of our choice. We have our bearings, while they see nothing familiar and are subtly placed on the defensive.
Manipulation is a dangerous game. Once someone suspects he is being manipulated, it becomes harder and harder to control him. But when we make our opponents to come to us, we create an illusion that he is controlling the situation. He does not feel the strings that pull him. Everything depends on the sweetness of the bait. If the trap is attractive enough, the turbulence of the opponents’ emotions and desires will blind them to reality. The greedier they become, the more they can be led around. If we can make other people dig their own graves, why should we sweat ourselves?
When other people are made to come to us, it is sometimes better to let them know that we have forced their hand. It is better to give up deception for overt manipulation. The psychological ramifications are profound. The person who makes others come to him appears powerful, demands respect, and often gets it. If on one occasion a person has made it a point of dignity that others must come to him and he has succeeded, they will continue to do so even after that person has stopped trying.

What is the essence of the passage?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An aggressive leader initiates a series of moves that begin by bringing him much power. Slowly, however, his power reaches a peak, and soon everything turns against him. His numerous enemies band together; trying to maintain his power, he exhausts himself going in this direction and that inevitably he collapses. The reason for this pattern is that the aggressive person is rarely in full control. He cannot see more than a couple of moves ahead, cannot see the consequences of this bold move or of that move. Because he is constantly being forced to react to the moves of his ever growing host of enemies and to the unforeseen consequences of his own rash actions, his aggressive energy is turned against him. 
In the realm of power, it is important to ask—what is the point of chasing here and there, trying to solve problems and defeat enemies when not in control of things? The answer is simple: the idea of power is wrong. Aggressive action is mistaken for effective action. And most often the most effective action is to stay back, keep calm, and let others be frustrated by the traps laid for them, playing for long-term power rather than quick victory.
It needs to be remembered that the essence of power is the ability to keep the initiative, to get others to react to our moves, to keep the opponent and those lurking around on the defensive. When we make other people to come to us, we suddenly become the ones controlling the situation. And the one who has the control has the power. Two things must happen to place a person in this position: We must ourselves learn to master our emotions, and never allow ourselves to be influenced by anger; meanwhile, however, we must keep playing on people’s natural tendency to react angrily when pushed and baited. In the long run, the ability to make other come to us is a weapon far more powerful than any tool of aggression.
This is a delicate trick and can be performed only by those who have mastered the art. All of us have only so much energy, and there are moments when our energies are at their peak. When we make other person come to us, he wears himself out, wasting his energy on the trip. Another advantage that lies with the person to whom the other person comes is that he operates in an unknown territory. Being on hostile ground makes him nervous and often he rushes his actions and makes mistakes. For negotiations or meetings, it is always wise to lure others into our territory, or in the territory of our choice. We have our bearings, while they see nothing familiar and are subtly placed on the defensive.
Manipulation is a dangerous game. Once someone suspects he is being manipulated, it becomes harder and harder to control him. But when we make our opponents to come to us, we create an illusion that he is controlling the situation. He does not feel the strings that pull him. Everything depends on the sweetness of the bait. If the trap is attractive enough, the turbulence of the opponents’ emotions and desires will blind them to reality. The greedier they become, the more they can be led around. If we can make other people dig their own graves, why should we sweat ourselves?
When other people are made to come to us, it is sometimes better to let them know that we have forced their hand. It is better to give up deception for overt manipulation. The psychological ramifications are profound. The person who makes others come to him appears powerful, demands respect, and often gets it. If on one occasion a person has made it a point of dignity that others must come to him and he has succeeded, they will continue to do so even after that person has stopped trying.

Why, according to the passage, forms must keep changing from time to time?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The human animal is distinguished by its constant creation of forms. Rarely expressing its emotions directly, it gives them form through language or through socially acceptable rituals. We cannot communicate our emotions without a form.
The forms that we create, however, change constantly—in fashion, in style, in all those human phenomena representing the mood of the moment. We are constantly altering the forms we have inherited from previous generations, and these changes are signs of life and vitality. Indeed, the things that don’t change, the forms that rigidify, come to look to us like death, and we destroy them. The young show this most clearly. Uncomfortable with the forms that society imposes upon them, having no set identity, they play with their own characters, trying, on a variety of masks and poses to express themselves. This is the vitality that drives the motor of form, creating constant changes in style.
Human creations evolve towards abstraction, towards being more mental and less material. This evolution is clear in art, which, in this century, made the great discovery of abstraction and conceptualism; it can also be seen in politics, which over the time have become less overtly violent, more complicated, indirect and cerebral. Warfare and strategy too have followed this pattern. Strategy began in the manipulation of armies on land, positioning them in ordered formations; on land, strategy is relatively two dimensional, and controlled by topography. But all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea, for commerce and colonization. And to protect their trading lanes they have had to learn how to fight at sea. Maritime warfare requires tremendous creativity and abstract thinking, since the lines are constantly shifting. Naval captains distinguish themselves by their ability to adapt to the literal fluidity of the terrain and to confuse the enemy with an abstract, hard-to-anticipate form. They are operating in a third dimension: the mind.
Back on land, guerilla warfare too demonstrates this evolution towards abstraction. T.E. Lawrence was perhaps the first modern strategist to develop the theory behind this kind of warfare, and to put it into practice. His ideas influenced Mao, who found in his writings an uncanny western equivalent to wei-chi. Lawrence was working with Arabs fighting for their territory against the Turks. His idea was to make the Arabs blend into the vast desert, never providing a target, never collecting together in one place. As the Turks scrambled to fight this vaporous army, they spread themselves thin, wasting energy in moving from place to place. They had the superior firepower but the Arabs kept the initiative by playing cat and mouse, giving the Turks nothing to hold on to, destroying their morale. “Most wars were wars of contact, ours should be a war of detachment,” Lawrence wrote. “We were to contain the enemy by the silent threat of a vast unknown desert, not disclosing ourselves till we attacked.”
This is the ultimate form of strategy. The war of engagement has become far too dangerous and costly; indirection and elusiveness yield far better results at a much lower cost. The main cost, in fact, is mental—the thinking it takes to align forces in scattered patterns, and to undermine the minds and psychology of the opponents. And nothing will infuriate and disorient them more than formlessness. In a world where wars of detachment are the order of the day, formlessness is crucial.

According to the passage, why did Borri maintain a dignified silence to the charges of heresy and witchcraft levelled against him by the Church?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

In the year 1653, a twenty-seven-year old Milan man named Francesco Borri claimed to have had a vision. He went around town telling one and all that the archangel Michael had appeared to him and announced that he had been chosen to be the capitano generale of the Army of the New Pope, an army that would seize and revitalize the world. The archangel had further revealed that Borri now had the power to see people’s souls, and that he would soon discover the philosopher’s stone—a long-sought-after substance that could change base metals into gold. Friends and acquaintances who heard Borri explain the vision, and who witnessed the change that had come over him, were impressed, for Borri had previously devoted himself to a life of wine, women and gambling. Now he gave all that up, plunging himself into the study of alchemy and talking only of mysticism and the occult.
The transformation was so sudden and miraculous, and Borri’s words were so filled with enthusiasm, that he began to create a following. Unfortunately, the Italian Inquisition began to notice him as well—they prosecuted anyone who delved into the occult—so he left Italy and began to wander Europe, from Austria to Holland, telling one and all that ‘to those who follow me all joy shall be granted.’ Wherever Borri stayed he attracted followers. His method was simple. He spoke of his vision, which had grown more and more elaborate, and offered to “look into” the soul of anyone who believed him (and they were many). Seemingly in a trance, he would stare at this new follower for several minutes, then claim to have seen the person’s soul, degree of enlightenment, and potential for spiritual greatness. If what he saw showed promise, he would add the person to his growing order of disciples, an honour indeed. 
The cult had six degrees, into which the disciples were assigned according to what Borri had glimpsed in their souls. With work and total devotion to the cult they could graduate to a higher degree. Borri—whom they called “His Excellency,” and “Universal Doctor”—demanded from them the strictest vows of poverty. All the goods and moneys they possessed had to be turned over to him. But they did not mind handing over their property, for Borri had told them, “I shall soon bring my chemical studies to a happy conclusion by the discovery of the philosopher’s stone, and by this means we shall have as much gold as we desire.”
Given his growing wealth, Borri began to change his style of living. Renting the most splendid apartment in the city into which he had temporarily settled, he would furnish it with fabulous furniture and accessories, which he had begun to collect. He would drive through city in a coach studded with jewels, with six magnificent black horses at its head. He never stayed too long in one place, and when he disappeared, saying he had more souls to gather into his flock, his reputation only grew in his absence. He became famous, although in fact he had never done a single concrete thing.
From all over Europe, the blind, the crippled, and the desperate came to visit Borri, for word had spread that he had healing powers. He asked no fee for his services, which only made him seem more marvellous, and indeed some claimed that in this or that city he had performed miracle cure. By only hinting at his accomplishments, he encouraged people’s imagination to blow them up to fantastic proportions. His wealth, for example, actually from the vast sums he was collecting from his increasingly select group of rich disciples; yet it was presumed that he had in fact perfected the philosopher’s stone. The Church continued to pursue him, denouncing him for heresy and witchcraft, and Borri’s response to these charges was a dignified silence; this only enhanced his reputation and made his followers more passionate. Only the great are persecuted, after all; how many understood Jesus Christ in his own time? Borri did not have to say a word—his followers now called the Pope the Antichrist.

The writer seems to suggest that

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

An aggressive leader initiates a series of moves that begin by bringing him much power. Slowly, however, his power reaches a peak, and soon everything turns against him. His numerous enemies band together; trying to maintain his power, he exhausts himself going in this direction and that inevitably he collapses. The reason for this pattern is that the aggressive person is rarely in full control. He cannot see more than a couple of moves ahead, cannot see the consequences of this bold move or of that move. Because he is constantly being forced to react to the moves of his ever growing host of enemies and to the unforeseen consequences of his own rash actions, his aggressive energy is turned against him. 
In the realm of power, it is important to ask—what is the point of chasing here and there, trying to solve problems and defeat enemies when not in control of things? The answer is simple: the idea of power is wrong. Aggressive action is mistaken for effective action. And most often the most effective action is to stay back, keep calm, and let others be frustrated by the traps laid for them, playing for long-term power rather than quick victory.
It needs to be remembered that the essence of power is the ability to keep the initiative, to get others to react to our moves, to keep the opponent and those lurking around on the defensive. When we make other people to come to us, we suddenly become the ones controlling the situation. And the one who has the control has the power. Two things must happen to place a person in this position: We must ourselves learn to master our emotions, and never allow ourselves to be influenced by anger; meanwhile, however, we must keep playing on people’s natural tendency to react angrily when pushed and baited. In the long run, the ability to make other come to us is a weapon far more powerful than any tool of aggression.
This is a delicate trick and can be performed only by those who have mastered the art. All of us have only so much energy, and there are moments when our energies are at their peak. When we make other person come to us, he wears himself out, wasting his energy on the trip. Another advantage that lies with the person to whom the other person comes is that he operates in an unknown territory. Being on hostile ground makes him nervous and often he rushes his actions and makes mistakes. For negotiations or meetings, it is always wise to lure others into our territory, or in the territory of our choice. We have our bearings, while they see nothing familiar and are subtly placed on the defensive.
Manipulation is a dangerous game. Once someone suspects he is being manipulated, it becomes harder and harder to control him. But when we make our opponents to come to us, we create an illusion that he is controlling the situation. He does not feel the strings that pull him. Everything depends on the sweetness of the bait. If the trap is attractive enough, the turbulence of the opponents’ emotions and desires will blind them to reality. The greedier they become, the more they can be led around. If we can make other people dig their own graves, why should we sweat ourselves?
When other people are made to come to us, it is sometimes better to let them know that we have forced their hand. It is better to give up deception for overt manipulation. The psychological ramifications are profound. The person who makes others come to him appears powerful, demands respect, and often gets it. If on one occasion a person has made it a point of dignity that others must come to him and he has succeeded, they will continue to do so even after that person has stopped trying.

What, according to the passage, renders form so important?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The human animal is distinguished by its constant creation of forms. Rarely expressing its emotions directly, it gives them form through language or through socially acceptable rituals. We cannot communicate our emotions without a form.
The forms that we create, however, change constantly—in fashion, in style, in all those human phenomena representing the mood of the moment. We are constantly altering the forms we have inherited from previous generations, and these changes are signs of life and vitality. Indeed, the things that don’t change, the forms that rigidify, come to look to us like death, and we destroy them. The young show this most clearly. Uncomfortable with the forms that society imposes upon them, having no set identity, they play with their own characters, trying, on a variety of masks and poses to express themselves. This is the vitality that drives the motor of form, creating constant changes in style.
Human creations evolve towards abstraction, towards being more mental and less material. This evolution is clear in art, which, in this century, made the great discovery of abstraction and conceptualism; it can also be seen in politics, which over the time have become less overtly violent, more complicated, indirect and cerebral. Warfare and strategy too have followed this pattern. Strategy began in the manipulation of armies on land, positioning them in ordered formations; on land, strategy is relatively two dimensional, and controlled by topography. But all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea, for commerce and colonization. And to protect their trading lanes they have had to learn how to fight at sea. Maritime warfare requires tremendous creativity and abstract thinking, since the lines are constantly shifting. Naval captains distinguish themselves by their ability to adapt to the literal fluidity of the terrain and to confuse the enemy with an abstract, hard-to-anticipate form. They are operating in a third dimension: the mind.
Back on land, guerilla warfare too demonstrates this evolution towards abstraction. T.E. Lawrence was perhaps the first modern strategist to develop the theory behind this kind of warfare, and to put it into practice. His ideas influenced Mao, who found in his writings an uncanny western equivalent to wei-chi. Lawrence was working with Arabs fighting for their territory against the Turks. His idea was to make the Arabs blend into the vast desert, never providing a target, never collecting together in one place. As the Turks scrambled to fight this vaporous army, they spread themselves thin, wasting energy in moving from place to place. They had the superior firepower but the Arabs kept the initiative by playing cat and mouse, giving the Turks nothing to hold on to, destroying their morale. “Most wars were wars of contact, ours should be a war of detachment,” Lawrence wrote. “We were to contain the enemy by the silent threat of a vast unknown desert, not disclosing ourselves till we attacked.”
This is the ultimate form of strategy. The war of engagement has become far too dangerous and costly; indirection and elusiveness yield far better results at a much lower cost. The main cost, in fact, is mental—the thinking it takes to align forces in scattered patterns, and to undermine the minds and psychology of the opponents. And nothing will infuriate and disorient them more than formlessness. In a world where wars of detachment are the order of the day, formlessness is crucial.

Human creations these days are moving more towards abstractions because

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The human animal is distinguished by its constant creation of forms. Rarely expressing its emotions directly, it gives them form through language or through socially acceptable rituals. We cannot communicate our emotions without a form.
The forms that we create, however, change constantly—in fashion, in style, in all those human phenomena representing the mood of the moment. We are constantly altering the forms we have inherited from previous generations, and these changes are signs of life and vitality. Indeed, the things that don’t change, the forms that rigidify, come to look to us like death, and we destroy them. The young show this most clearly. Uncomfortable with the forms that society imposes upon them, having no set identity, they play with their own characters, trying, on a variety of masks and poses to express themselves. This is the vitality that drives the motor of form, creating constant changes in style.
Human creations evolve towards abstraction, towards being more mental and less material. This evolution is clear in art, which, in this century, made the great discovery of abstraction and conceptualism; it can also be seen in politics, which over the time have become less overtly violent, more complicated, indirect and cerebral. Warfare and strategy too have followed this pattern. Strategy began in the manipulation of armies on land, positioning them in ordered formations; on land, strategy is relatively two dimensional, and controlled by topography. But all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea, for commerce and colonization. And to protect their trading lanes they have had to learn how to fight at sea. Maritime warfare requires tremendous creativity and abstract thinking, since the lines are constantly shifting. Naval captains distinguish themselves by their ability to adapt to the literal fluidity of the terrain and to confuse the enemy with an abstract, hard-to-anticipate form. They are operating in a third dimension: the mind.
Back on land, guerilla warfare too demonstrates this evolution towards abstraction. T.E. Lawrence was perhaps the first modern strategist to develop the theory behind this kind of warfare, and to put it into practice. His ideas influenced Mao, who found in his writings an uncanny western equivalent to wei-chi. Lawrence was working with Arabs fighting for their territory against the Turks. His idea was to make the Arabs blend into the vast desert, never providing a target, never collecting together in one place. As the Turks scrambled to fight this vaporous army, they spread themselves thin, wasting energy in moving from place to place. They had the superior firepower but the Arabs kept the initiative by playing cat and mouse, giving the Turks nothing to hold on to, destroying their morale. “Most wars were wars of contact, ours should be a war of detachment,” Lawrence wrote. “We were to contain the enemy by the silent threat of a vast unknown desert, not disclosing ourselves till we attacked.”
This is the ultimate form of strategy. The war of engagement has become far too dangerous and costly; indirection and elusiveness yield far better results at a much lower cost. The main cost, in fact, is mental—the thinking it takes to align forces in scattered patterns, and to undermine the minds and psychology of the opponents. And nothing will infuriate and disorient them more than formlessness. In a world where wars of detachment are the order of the day, formlessness is crucial.

According to the writer, all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea because

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The human animal is distinguished by its constant creation of forms. Rarely expressing its emotions directly, it gives them form through language or through socially acceptable rituals. We cannot communicate our emotions without a form.
The forms that we create, however, change constantly—in fashion, in style, in all those human phenomena representing the mood of the moment. We are constantly altering the forms we have inherited from previous generations, and these changes are signs of life and vitality. Indeed, the things that don’t change, the forms that rigidify, come to look to us like death, and we destroy them. The young show this most clearly. Uncomfortable with the forms that society imposes upon them, having no set identity, they play with their own characters, trying, on a variety of masks and poses to express themselves. This is the vitality that drives the motor of form, creating constant changes in style.
Human creations evolve towards abstraction, towards being more mental and less material. This evolution is clear in art, which, in this century, made the great discovery of abstraction and conceptualism; it can also be seen in politics, which over the time have become less overtly violent, more complicated, indirect and cerebral. Warfare and strategy too have followed this pattern. Strategy began in the manipulation of armies on land, positioning them in ordered formations; on land, strategy is relatively two dimensional, and controlled by topography. But all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea, for commerce and colonization. And to protect their trading lanes they have had to learn how to fight at sea. Maritime warfare requires tremendous creativity and abstract thinking, since the lines are constantly shifting. Naval captains distinguish themselves by their ability to adapt to the literal fluidity of the terrain and to confuse the enemy with an abstract, hard-to-anticipate form. They are operating in a third dimension: the mind.
Back on land, guerilla warfare too demonstrates this evolution towards abstraction. T.E. Lawrence was perhaps the first modern strategist to develop the theory behind this kind of warfare, and to put it into practice. His ideas influenced Mao, who found in his writings an uncanny western equivalent to wei-chi. Lawrence was working with Arabs fighting for their territory against the Turks. His idea was to make the Arabs blend into the vast desert, never providing a target, never collecting together in one place. As the Turks scrambled to fight this vaporous army, they spread themselves thin, wasting energy in moving from place to place. They had the superior firepower but the Arabs kept the initiative by playing cat and mouse, giving the Turks nothing to hold on to, destroying their morale. “Most wars were wars of contact, ours should be a war of detachment,” Lawrence wrote. “We were to contain the enemy by the silent threat of a vast unknown desert, not disclosing ourselves till we attacked.”
This is the ultimate form of strategy. The war of engagement has become far too dangerous and costly; indirection and elusiveness yield far better results at a much lower cost. The main cost, in fact, is mental—the thinking it takes to align forces in scattered patterns, and to undermine the minds and psychology of the opponents. And nothing will infuriate and disorient them more than formlessness. In a world where wars of detachment are the order of the day, formlessness is crucial.

Why did the author term the Arab army engaging the Turks as 'vaporous army'?

Directions: Answer the given question based on the following passage:

The human animal is distinguished by its constant creation of forms. Rarely expressing its emotions directly, it gives them form through language or through socially acceptable rituals. We cannot communicate our emotions without a form.
The forms that we create, however, change constantly—in fashion, in style, in all those human phenomena representing the mood of the moment. We are constantly altering the forms we have inherited from previous generations, and these changes are signs of life and vitality. Indeed, the things that don’t change, the forms that rigidify, come to look to us like death, and we destroy them. The young show this most clearly. Uncomfortable with the forms that society imposes upon them, having no set identity, they play with their own characters, trying, on a variety of masks and poses to express themselves. This is the vitality that drives the motor of form, creating constant changes in style.
Human creations evolve towards abstraction, towards being more mental and less material. This evolution is clear in art, which, in this century, made the great discovery of abstraction and conceptualism; it can also be seen in politics, which over the time have become less overtly violent, more complicated, indirect and cerebral. Warfare and strategy too have followed this pattern. Strategy began in the manipulation of armies on land, positioning them in ordered formations; on land, strategy is relatively two dimensional, and controlled by topography. But all the great powers have eventually taken to the sea, for commerce and colonization. And to protect their trading lanes they have had to learn how to fight at sea. Maritime warfare requires tremendous creativity and abstract thinking, since the lines are constantly shifting. Naval captains distinguish themselves by their ability to adapt to the literal fluidity of the terrain and to confuse the enemy with an abstract, hard-to-anticipate form. They are operating in a third dimension: the mind.
Back on land, guerilla warfare too demonstrates this evolution towards abstraction. T.E. Lawrence was perhaps the first modern strategist to develop the theory behind this kind of warfare, and to put it into practice. His ideas influenced Mao, who found in his writings an uncanny western equivalent to wei-chi. Lawrence was working with Arabs fighting for their territory against the Turks. His idea was to make the Arabs blend into the vast desert, never providing a target, never collecting together in one place. As the Turks scrambled to fight this vaporous army, they spread themselves thin, wasting energy in moving from place to place. They had the superior firepower but the Arabs kept the initiative by playing cat and mouse, giving the Turks nothing to hold on to, destroying their morale. “Most wars were wars of contact, ours should be a war of detachment,” Lawrence wrote. “We were to contain the enemy by the silent threat of a vast unknown desert, not disclosing ourselves till we attacked.”
This is the ultimate form of strategy. The war of engagement has become far too dangerous and costly; indirection and elusiveness yield far better results at a much lower cost. The main cost, in fact, is mental—the thinking it takes to align forces in scattered patterns, and to undermine the minds and psychology of the opponents. And nothing will infuriate and disorient them more than formlessness. In a world where wars of detachment are the order of the day, formlessness is crucial.