General Chemistry Fundamentals

For every copper ion discharged at the cathode, a copper ion is released into the solution at the anode. The sulphate and the hydroxyl ions remain as spectator ions. The total number of copper and sulphate ions remain constant throughout. Assuming that no evaporation takes place, the blue color of the copper sulphate is maintained throughout.

A coordinate bond is formed by two atoms sharing a pair of electrons. The atoms are held together because the electron pair is attracted by both of the nuclei.For example,NH₄⁺ is formed by the transfer of a hydrogen ion from the hydrogen chloride to the lone pair of electrons on the ammonia molecule.H₂SO₄ also has this type of bonding pattern.

In brewing, alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugar into carbon dioxide gas (CO₂) and ethyl alcohol. This process is carried out by yeast cells using a range of enzymes. This is in fact a complex series of conversions, that brings about the conversion of sugar to CO₂ and alcohol.

Nucleic acids allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid, known as DNA and ribonucleic acid, known as RNA. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation.

Graham's law, also known as Graham's law of effusion, was formulated by Scottish physical chemist Thomas Graham. Graham found experimentally that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles.

HCl molecules, have a dipole moment because the hydrogen atom has a slight positive charge and the chlorine atom has a slight negative charge. Because of the force of attraction between oppositely charged particles, there is a small dipole-dipole force of attraction between adjacent HCl molecules.

The Haber Process combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural gas (methane) into ammonia. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia and  is exothermic.The catalyst is actually slightly more complicated than pure iron. It has potassium hydroxide added to it as a promoter - a substance that increases its efficiency.

Silicones are inorganic polymers, i.e. there are no carbon atoms in the backbone chain. The backbone is a chain of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms. Each silicone has two groups attached to it, and these can be any organic groups. Polydimethylsiloxane is the most common silicon.

In practice this is a complicated procedure and so simpler methods are resorted to determine the amount of hydrogen required to convert it into a saturated fat.The simplest of these is the determination of the amount of iodine that can be made to combine with the fat. The percentage by weight of iodine absorbed by the fat in the natural state is known as the iodine number. It is an index to the degree of unsaturation of the fat.

Benzene and water are only slightly miscible because of the very large differences in their chemical properties.

The halogens are all chemically active. For that reason, none occur naturally in the form of elements. However—with the exception of astatine—they are very widespread and abundant in chemical compounds. Astatine is radioactive and is one of the rarest of the chemical elements. Astatine is generally regarded as one of the rarest naturally occurring elements. According to some estimates, no more than 44 milligrams of the element are to be found in Earth's crust.

It is a nobel gas. Nobel gases experience london dispersion force. The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force. The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction. London forces are the attractive forces that cause nonpolar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently.

The nitric acid is used to make patterns and designs on glass and metal, including jewelry.

In science and engineering, a conductor is a material which contains movable electric charges. In metallic conductors, such as copper or aluminum, the movable charged particles are electrons. Ag is the best conductor of electricity.

Alkanes, which are the major constituents of crude oil, do not mix with water and float on its surface. The wax that we call paraffin and make candles from is a mixture of alkanes containing between 22 and 27 carbon atoms per molecule.

'p' block elements are those in which the outer electronic configuration is of the type ns2 np1 to ns2 np6 and where the last electron enters into any of the outermost 'p' orbitals. These elements belong to groups 13 to 18 of the long form of periodic table and are situated on the right hand side of the table.

Liquids are formed when the energy (usually in the form of heat) of a system is increased and the rigid structure of the solid state is broken down. In liquids, molecules can move past one another and bump into other molecules; however, they remain relatively close to each other like solids.The highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid is called its critical temperature.

The oxidation of primary alcohols yields aldehydes and acids if carried to completion. In the oxidation of an alcohol, the oxidizing agent, usually represented by (O), removes the hydrogen and electrons from the alcohol, the reducing agent. The O in the oxidizing agent is some unspecified oxygen atom which reacts with the hydrogen atoms to form water.

FeSO₄ and FeCl₃ retard the reaction between tin and HNO3 and cause an increase in the yield of NH3 and a decrease in the hydroxylamine formed.

Lithium displays most of the characteristic properties of group to which it belongs. However, it differs in many respects from the remaining characteristic properties of the metals of Group 1.  Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium and both have similarities in some of their characteristics.

In this hybridisation, one '2s' and three '2p' orbitals present in the valence shell of the excited carbon atom get hybridised to give rise to four new orbitals of equivalent energies. Each sp³ hybrid orbital is an average of one '2s' orbital and three '2p' orbitals having one fourth 's' character and three fourth 'p' character. 

Colligative properties can only be applied to solutions. By definition, one of the properties of a solution is a colligative property, if it depends only on the ratio of the number of particles of solute and solvent in the solution, not the identity of the solute.

In this type of hybridisation one '2s' and one '2px' orbitals get hybridised to form two equivalent orbitals called 'sp' hybrid orbitals. The remaining 2py and 2pz do not take part in hybridisation. The two unhybridised orbitals are directed along the 'y' and 'z' axes while the two hybridised orbitals are directed towards the 'x' axis. This hybridisation is often known as diagonal hybridisation as the two hybridised orbitals are at 180o due to mutual repulsion of their electron clouds. Each hybrid orbital has equal 's' and 'p' character.

In this type of hybridisation one '2s' and two 'p' orbitals (2px and 2py) get hybridised to form three equivalent orbitals called 'sp2' hybrid orbitals. Each hybrid orbital has one third 's' character and two third 'p' character. The bond angle between the two hybridised orbital is 120. The unhybridised orbital (2pz) of carbon is oriented in a plane at right angles to the plane containing the three hybridised orbitals.

In the formation of ethylene, each carbon atom undergoes sp² hybridisation leaving 2p_z orbital unhybridised. One of the sp² hybridised orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially with sp² hybridised orbital of the other carbon atom to form a stable sigma bond (C-C). The remaining two sp² hybrid orbitals of both carbon overlap axially with the half filled '1s' orbital of hydrogen atoms forming four C-H sigma bonds. The unhybridised orbital (2p_z) of one carbon atom overlaps sidewise with the similar orbital of the other carbon atom to form a weak pi bond. Thus, in ethylene all the six atoms containing the sigma bonds lie in one plane, while the pi bond is at a plane perpendicular to the plane, of the six atoms.