Indian History - Ancient, Medieval and Modern

The Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE) flourished during the Chalcolithic age, which is characterized by the use of stone tools along with copper. This period bridges the Neolithic (stone tools only) and Bronze Age (bronze implements). Paleolithic and Mesolithic are earlier Stone Age periods, while the Indus Valley had not yet entered the full Bronze Age stage.

Cro-Magnon Man (Homo sapiens) succeeded Neanderthals in the evolutionary timeline, appearing around 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals went extinct approximately 30,000 years ago, while Cro-Magnons represented early modern humans. Java Man and Peking Man are Homo erectus fossils, and Australopithecus is a much earlier hominid ancestor.

King Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BCE) of the Neo-Babylonian Empire built the Hanging Gardens for his wife Amytis of Media, who missed the green hills of her homeland. The Gardens were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Augustus was a Roman emperor, Demetrius was a Greek general, and Ptolemy Philadelphus I ruled Egypt.

The potter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia around 3500 BCE during the Ubaid period, revolutionizing pottery production. This invention allowed for faster, more uniform pottery production. While other civilizations later developed pottery techniques, Mesopotamia was the first to use the wheel. China and Egypt developed significant pottery traditions later, and India's pottery came even later.

Chanhudaro in present-day Sindh, Pakistan, was the only Indus Valley city exclusively dedicated to craft production, with extensive evidence of bead-making workshops. Archaeologists have found bead-making tools, raw materials, and finished beads in large quantities. Kalibangan was known for fire altars, Ganeriwala remains largely unexcavated, and Surkotada was a smaller settlement.

The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalavan in Kashmir during the 1st-2nd century CE (1st century A.D.) under the patronage of Kushan ruler Kanishka. This council led to the division of Buddhism into Hinayana (Theravada) and Mahayana schools. The first council was at Rajagriha, second at Vaishali, and third at Pataliputra - but these were all much earlier (pre-1st century BCE).

James Prinsep, a British scholar and antiquarian, deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837 by studying the inscriptions at Sarnath and comparing them with later Indo-Greek coin legends. His breakthrough allowed historians to read Ashoka's edicts and understand ancient Indian history. William Jones founded the Asiatic Society, R. Samasastri was an epigraphist, and Mortimer Wheeler was an archaeologist.

Nagarjuna (150-250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school of Mahayana Buddhism, propounded Sunyavada - the philosophy of emptiness (sunyata), which states that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence. His teachings are preserved in texts like the Mulamadhyamakakarika. Moggaliputta Tissa chaired the Third Buddhist Council, Asvaghosa was a poet-saint, and Vasubandhu founded the Yogacara school.

In ancient Vedic society, the cow was considered 'aghanya' (not to be killed) due to its sacred status and economic importance. Cows provided milk, dung for fuel and fertilizer, and were central to agricultural life, making them revered and protected animals in Aryan culture.

The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts in Zoroastrianism, containing prayers, hymns, and rituals. It was composed in the Avestan language and includes sections like the Gathas (hymns attributed to Zoroaster), Yasna, and Vendidad. Ahura Mazda is the supreme deity (not a text), Trisasti salaka is a Jaina text, and Tripitaka is Buddhist.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 CE) was the most powerful and significant ruler of the Khalji dynasty, known for his administrative reforms, market control policies, and military conquests in the Deccan. He successfully defended against Mongol invasions and expanded the Delhi Sultanate significantly. Jalaluddin founded the dynasty but was less powerful, Mubarak was his weak successor, and Malik Kafur was a military commander (not a ruler).

Robert Clive recaptured Calcutta from Siraj-ud-daulah in January 1757, which ultimately led to the decisive Battle of Plassey later that year. This marked the beginning of British political and military dominance in Bengal.

Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus I Nicator. His work 'Indica' provides the first significant foreign account of Indian society, geography, and culture during the Mauryan period.

Ashoka is widely regarded as one of history's greatest rulers due to his transformation after the Kalinga War (261 BCE), when he embraced Buddhism and non-violence. He ruled by dhamma (moral law) and promoted religious tolerance, welfare, and peaceful governance throughout his vast empire.

Samudragupta is called the 'Indian Napoleon' because of his extensive military conquests that expanded the Gupta Empire across much of North and South India. Historian V.A. Smith gave him this title due to his brilliant campaign strategy and empire-building abilities.

Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty, was called 'Ekarat' (sole sovereign) because he was the first ruler to successfully unify major parts of northern India under one authority. He conquered several kingdoms and established a powerful empire.

The Regulating Act of 1773 was the first major parliamentary intervention in the affairs of the East India Company. It established the office of Governor-General of Bengal (Warren Hastings became the first) and attempted to regulate the company's administration in India.

Varahamihira (6th century CE) was a renowned Indian astronomer, mathematician, and polymath who wrote Brihatsamhita. This encyclopedic work covers subjects including astronomy, astrology, architecture, meteorology, and various other sciences of classical Indian knowledge.

The four Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva - are the primary sources of information about Aryan history, culture, religion, and social structure. While Sama Veda is indeed a Veda, the question asks which is 'not one of the main sources,' implying it's less historical compared to Rig Veda, which contains more historical information about early Aryan society and their compositions.

Akbar abolished the discriminatory 'Pilgrim Tax' (jazia) in 1564 as part of his policy of religious tolerance and integration. This tax was traditionally levied on non-Muslims (mainly Hindus) for practicing their religion and undertaking pilgrimages.

The Lucknow Pact (1916) was an agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. It marked a rare moment of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, with Congress accepting separate electorates and the League supporting Congress's demand for self-government.

Mahatma Gandhi practiced law in South Africa from 1893 to 1914, where he developed his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth-force/non-violent resistance) while fighting racial discrimination against Indians. It was in South Africa that he emerged as a prominent political and social leader.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad wrote 'India Wins Freedom' as his autobiography, published posthumously in 1959. The book provides his firsthand account of India's freedom movement, his role as a Congress leader, and his perspective on key events and personalities from 1915 until independence.

The Sumerians, who settled in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), established the world's first known cities around 4000-3500 BCE, including Uruk and Ur, with advanced systems of writing (cuneiform), mathematics, and governance that define urban civilization. While Egyptians and Chinese also developed early civilizations, the Sumerian city-states predate them. "Mesopotamians" is a broader regional term that includes Sumerians but also later cultures like Babylonians and Assyrians.